Affordability is not a challenge associated with educational assessment. Validity, reliability, and bias are all challenges that educators and policymakers must consider when developing and implementing assessments.

Validity is a key concept in educational assessment. It refers to the degree to which an assessment measures what it is intended to measure. There are different types of validity, including content validity, criterion validity, and construct validity.

Reliability is another key concept in educational assessment. It refers to the consistency of an assessment over time. A reliable assessment will produce similar results when administered to the same students on multiple occasions.

Bias is a serious problem in educational assessment. It can occur when an assessment is designed or administered in a way that favors one group of students over another. Bias can have a negative impact on the accuracy and fairness of an assessment.

Fairness is an important goal of educational assessment. It refers to the extent to which an assessment is free from bias. A fair assessment will give all students an equal opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge and skills.

Accountability is a key issue in educational assessment. It refers to the use of assessment data to hold schools and educators responsible for student learning. Accountability systems can be used to improve the quality of education and to ensure that all students have access to a high-quality education.

A high-stakes assessment is an assessment that has significant consequences for students. Examples of high-stakes assessments include standardized tests used for college admissions, high-school graduation exams, and licensure exams.

A low-stakes assessment is an assessment that has relatively low consequences for students. Examples of low-stakes assessments include classroom quizzes, homework assignments, and formative assessments.

Formative assessments are designed to provide feedback to students during the learning process. They are typically used to identify areas where students need additional support. Formative assessments can be used to improve the effectiveness of instruction and to help students learn more effectively.

Summative assessments are used to evaluate student learning at the end of a unit or course. They are typically used to determine a student's grade or to make decisions about placement or promotion. Summative assessments can be used to measure student achievement and to identify areas where students need additional support.

Authentic assessments are assessments that require students to apply their knowledge and skills to real-world problems. They are designed to measure students' ability to think critically, solve problems, and communicate effectively. Authentic assessments can be used to improve student engagement and to help students learn more effectively.

Authentic assessments are not typically biased against certain groups of students. However, they can be difficult to design and implement, and they can be time-consuming to score.

High-stakes assessments can be stressful for students, they can lead to teaching to the test, and they can be used to make unfair comparisons between schools.

Low-stakes assessments can be less motivating for students, they can provide less feedback to students and teachers, and they can be used to make unfair comparisons between students.

Formative assessments can be difficult to design and implement, they can be time-consuming to score, and they can be used to make unfair comparisons between students.