Lactation

Sweating

Childbirth

Blood clotting

Lac operon in e. coli

The concentration of sodium ions is generally higher inside the cells than outside .

The amount of sodium in the initial filtrate is much less than that in the plasma.

Most sodium is reabsorbed in the distal tubule.

There is no active transport of sodium.

The diuretic drug furosemide blocks the Na-K-2Cl channel in the loop of Henle.

Ultrasound scanning

Measurement of the creatinine clearance

Measurement of protein loss in the urine

Renal angiography

Renal biopsy

principal cells of the collecting duct

glomerulus

loop of Henle

the intercalated cells of collecting duct

proximal tubule

Peripheral edema suggests volume depletion.

Bruits heard over the renal arteries suggest renal artery stenosis.

Dipstick testing of urine is an ineffective technique.

Measuring blood pressure is unnecessary.

A drug history can be safely omitted.

Potassium is the major extracellular ion.

Within cells, the concentration of potassium is lower than that of sodium.

Potassium excretion is regulated by altering potassium secretion.

The 3Na⁺/2K⁺ ATPase pumps potassium out of cells.

Specialised cells have potassium channels.

Na-K-_-2Cl

ROMK

3Na⁺/2K⁺ ATPase

NHE 3

ENaC

Overall human metabolism results in acid production .

Buffers present in kidneys must be strong acids or bases.

Carbon dioxide directly raises the pH of body fluids.

The pH of a buffer solution is always 7.

A rise in the plasma level of bicarbonate ions lowers the pH of plasma.

The major changes in tubular fluid composition are fabricated in the distal tubules.

The proximal tubules consequentially keeps the concentration of urine same.

A part of the loop of Henle is permeable to water.

Vasa recta are the only blood supply to renal medulla of the kidneys.

The walls of the tubules are made up of epithelial cells.

The main site of glomerular filtration is the loop of Henle.

Bowman's capsule surrounds the perinephric fat.

The filtration barrier accomodates two layers of cells.

Constriction of the afferent arterioles enhances filtration.

Glomerular filtration of molecules is independent of their size and charge.

If a substance is neither reabsorbed nor secreted in the tubules, the amount filtered in the glomeruli is equal to the amount excreted in the urine.

In severe untreated renal failure, plasma creatinine levels fall.

Nuclear imaging can provide information about renal blood flow and function.

Normal urine does not contain free myoglobin.

Bleeding is a potential complication of renal biopsy.

There are three kidney structures that are formed at different times during development.

The final adult kidney originates from the pronephros.

The ureteric bud leads to the formation of draining system.

The capillaries invaginate the tubules to form glomeruli.

The final adult kidney rises up the body during normal development.

Water molecules can be pumped directly by active transport.

Active transport can implant a concentration gradient.

Counter transport of oppositely charged molecules regulates electroneutrality.

Water translocates by osmosis from a region of high osmolality to a region of low osmolality.

Active transport can invalidate an electrical gradient.

The failure of the development of ureteric bud causes hypospadias.

Horseshoe kidneys are formed when the pronephros fails to regress.

Adult kidneys can have only one renal artery.

Early splitting of the ureteric bud can result in one kidney having two ureters.

The ureteric bud forms the glans penis.

glomerulonephritis

urinary tract infection

prostatic enlargement

chronic renal impairment

urinary tract stones