Bicarbonate ions are freely filtered in the glomerulus.

Bicarbonate ions are reabsorbed in the distal tubule.

Carbonic anhydrase catalyses the formation of bicarbonate ions.

The secretion of hydrogen ions results in bicarbonate reabsorption.

If required, the bicarbonate ions can function as a base in the kidneys.

Acid can be excreted as NH₄⁺ ions.

Acid excretion mainly occurs in the early nephron.

In the distal nephron, secreted hydrogen ions mainly contribute to bicarbonate reabsorption.

Sodium phosphate is a urinary base.

Human urine is usually alkaline in nature.

Calcium is the major cation in extracellular fluid.

A rise in plasma calcium levels can cause precipitation of calcium phosphate.

Intracellular calcium concentration is tightly regulated.

The calcium in plasma also exists as complexes with other ions such as phosphate.

A rise in plasma phosphate levels can cause precipitation of calcium phosphate.

Erythropoietin is a protein.

Hypoxia inhibits erythropoietin production.

Most erythropoietin is made in the pancreas in adults.

Erythropoietin decelerates the production of red blood cells.

Erythropoietin increases water reabsorption in the Loop of Henle.

voluntary

oral

pharyngeal

esophageal

mastication

Tubular secretion is more important than tubular reabsorption for most of the drugs.

Drug molecules, which are bound to proteins are not filtered.

Lipid soluble drugs require special transporter molecules to cross cell membranes.

The proximal tubule is a site of drug secretion.

A charge on a drug favours water solubility.

Fundus is first palpable at 20^th week.

Fundus is at umbilicus at 36^th week.

Fundus is at xiphoid sternum at 20^th week

Fundal height increases approximately by 2cm/week after 24 weeks.

A free head after 37 weeks in a multiparous woman.

Calcium is reabsorbed but not secreted in the tubules.

Phosphate is secreted but not reabsorbed in the tubules.

Phosphate is reabsorbed with sodium in the proximal tubule.

Calbindins can transport calcium across tubular cells.

The reabsorption of calcium and phosphate ions takes place in the proximal tubules.

Erythropoietin levels are usually lowered.

Anemia is a common problem.

Erythropoietin can be given to treat the anemia.

Erythropoietin is usually given as oral tablets.

Iron deficiency can occur.

Aquaporin is the main hormone regulating water reabsorption.

The key hormone regulating water reabsorption is secreted from the anterior pituitary gland.

The vasa recta has the same structure as the Loop of Henle.

There are osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus.

There is no limit to how much the body can concentrate the urine.

Fatigue

Breast tenderness

Spotting

Short term memory loss

Stable calm mood

The efferent arterioles deliver blood to the glomerulus.

Vasa recta receive their blood supply from the afferent arterioles.

Vasoconstriction of afferent arterioles increases glomerular filtration.

Vasoconstriction of the efferent arterioles increases glomerular filtration.

Vasoconstriction reduces the resistance to flow in a blood vessel.

Angiotensin II

Vasopressin

Epinephrine

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs

Prostaglandins

Velopharyngeal opening

Closure of the larynx

Contraction of the pharyngeal constrictor muscles

Elevation of the larynx and hyoid bone towards the base of tongue

Relaxation of the tonically contracted cricopharyngeus

frontal lobes

somatic system

spinal cord

cerebellum

spinal nerves