Barthold Georg Niebuhr, a German historian, is credited with pioneering the rigorous application of critical methods to historical sources, laying the foundation for modern historical criticism.

Leopold von Ranke emphasized the importance of objectivity and the rigorous examination of empirical evidence in historical research, advocating for a scientific approach to history.

The Marxist School, founded by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, placed emphasis on the role of social and economic factors, particularly class struggle, in driving historical change.

Critics of the Positivist School argued that its focus on objectivity and empirical evidence led to a narrow and incomplete understanding of historical events, neglecting the role of subjective factors and cultural influences.

The New Historicism, a movement in literary and historical criticism, emerged in the 20th century, emphasizing the interconnectedness of texts, historical contexts, and cultural practices, challenging the idea of historical objectivity.

The Annales School, founded by Marc Bloch and Lucien Febvre, focused on long-term historical trends and structures, such as economic cycles, social transformations, and cultural shifts, rather than individual events or personalities.

The Postmodern School, emerging in the late 20th century, emphasized the role of discourse and language in shaping historical narratives, questioning the objectivity and truth claims of traditional historiography.

Critics of the Marxist School argued that its emphasis on economic factors and class struggle led to a deterministic approach to history, neglecting the role of individual agency and contingency.

The Cultural History School, emerging in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, emphasized the importance of cultural and intellectual history, examining the role of ideas, beliefs, and values in shaping historical events.

Critics of the New Historicism argued that its focus on textual analysis and deconstruction led to a tendency to undermine the coherence and significance of historical narratives.

The Memory Studies School, emerging in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, emphasized the role of memory and commemoration in shaping historical understanding, examining how societies remember and interpret their past.

Critics of the Cultural History School argued that its focus on cultural and intellectual history led to a tendency to romanticize the past and neglect the role of social and economic factors.

The Emotional History School, emerging in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, emphasized the role of emotions and experiences in shaping historical events, examining how people's feelings and lived experiences influenced historical outcomes.

Critics of the Memory Studies School argued that its focus on individual memory led to a neglect of social and collective memory, as well as the role of power and ideology in shaping historical understanding.

The Digital History School, emerging in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, emphasized the role of digital technologies in shaping historical research and interpretation, examining how digital tools and resources can enhance our understanding of the past.