The study of universals and particulars focuses on the relationship between general properties or concepts (universals) and individual objects or instances (particulars).

Universals are general properties or concepts that can apply to multiple particulars. 'Humanity' is a universal that applies to all human beings.

Particulars are individual objects or instances that possess universal properties. For example, 'Socrates' is a particular human being.

Realism is a philosophical school of thought that posits the independent existence of universals, asserting that they exist objectively, regardless of the existence of particulars.

The problem of universals is a philosophical argument against the independent existence of universals. It questions how universals can exist independently of particulars, given that particulars are the only things we can directly observe and experience.

Nominalism is a philosophical school of thought that denies the independent existence of universals, asserting that they are merely mental concepts or names that we use to group similar particulars.

The ontological argument is a philosophical argument in favor of the independent existence of universals. It posits that the existence of universals can be logically deduced from the concept of existence itself.

Conceptualism is a philosophical school of thought that posits that universals exist both as independent entities and as mental concepts. It asserts that universals have a real existence, but that they are also dependent on the human mind for their conceptualization.

The problem of particulars is a philosophical argument against the independent existence of particulars. It questions how particulars can exist independently of universals, given that universals are the properties that define and characterize particulars.

Nominalism is a philosophical school of thought that asserts that particulars are the only real entities. It denies the independent existence of universals, positing that they are merely mental concepts or names that we use to group similar particulars.

The ontological argument is a philosophical argument in favor of the independent existence of particulars. It posits that the existence of particulars can be logically deduced from the concept of existence itself.

Realism is a philosophical school of thought that posits that particulars are dependent on universals for their existence. It asserts that universals are the real and fundamental entities, while particulars are merely instances or manifestations of those universals.

The problem of dependence is a philosophical argument against the dependence of particulars on universals. It questions how particulars can be dependent on universals, given that particulars are the only things we can directly observe and experience.

Existentialism is a philosophical school of thought that posits that universals and particulars are equally real and independent. It asserts that both universals and particulars have their own unique modes of existence and that they are not reducible to each other.