Pramana, or means of knowledge, is a fundamental concept in Indian epistemology. It refers to the various ways in which knowledge can be acquired, such as perception, inference, and testimony.

The Nyaya school of Indian philosophy places great emphasis on perception as a means of knowledge. It argues that perception is the most reliable source of knowledge and that all other forms of knowledge are derived from it.

Anumana is a type of inference in Indian logic that involves drawing a conclusion from two or more premises. It is based on the principle that if A is always associated with B, and B is present, then A must also be present.

Hetvabhasa is a fallacy in Indian logic that occurs when a conclusion is drawn from two premises that are not logically connected. It is also known as a fallacy of the middle term.

Shabda is a type of testimony in Indian epistemology that refers to the knowledge that is derived from the words of a reliable source. It is considered to be a valid means of knowledge, provided that the source is trustworthy.

The Nyaya school of Indian philosophy places great emphasis on reasoning and logic as a means of knowledge. It argues that reasoning is the most reliable way to acquire knowledge and that all other forms of knowledge are ultimately based on it.

Adhyavasaya is a type of fallacy in Indian logic that occurs when a conclusion is drawn from a premise that is not supported by evidence. It is also known as a fallacy of hasty generalization.

The Vedanta school of Indian philosophy places great emphasis on intuition and experience as a means of knowledge. It argues that the ultimate reality can only be known through direct experience and that all other forms of knowledge are ultimately inadequate.

Kevalanvayi is a type of inference in Indian logic that involves drawing a conclusion from a single premise. It is based on the principle that if A is always associated with B, and A is present, then B must also be present.

The Mimamsa school of Indian philosophy places great emphasis on language and grammar as a means of knowledge. It argues that the Vedas, the sacred texts of Hinduism, are the ultimate source of knowledge and that they must be interpreted correctly in order to understand the true nature of reality.

Sadhana is a type of fallacy in Indian logic that occurs when a conclusion is drawn from a premise that is too broad or general. It is also known as a fallacy of overgeneralization.

The Mimamsa school of Indian philosophy places great emphasis on action and duty as a means of knowledge. It argues that the Vedas, the sacred texts of Hinduism, prescribe certain duties that must be performed in order to achieve the ultimate goal of liberation.

Tarka is a type of inference in Indian logic that involves drawing a conclusion from a series of premises. It is based on the principle that if A is associated with B, B is associated with C, and C is associated with D, then A must also be associated with D.

The Vedanta school of Indian philosophy places great emphasis on skepticism and doubt as a means of knowledge. It argues that the ultimate reality can only be known through direct experience and that all other forms of knowledge are ultimately inadequate.

Upamana is a type of fallacy in Indian logic that occurs when a conclusion is drawn from a premise that is based on a false analogy. It is also known as a fallacy of false analogy.