The philosophy of chemistry is concerned with the fundamental nature of chemical substances and their interactions.

Hermann Kolbe was a German chemist who developed the concept of chemical individuality, which states that chemical substances are distinct entities with their own unique properties.

Atomic theory is the theory that states that all matter is composed of indivisible particles called atoms.

John Dalton is credited with developing the first modern atomic theory, which was published in 1808.

The electron is the subatomic particle that carries a negative charge.

The proton is the subatomic particle that carries a positive charge.

The neutron is the subatomic particle that has no charge.

The strong nuclear force is the force that holds the nucleus of an atom together.

The electromagnetic force is the force that is responsible for chemical bonding.

The electromagnetic force is the force that is responsible for the attraction between oppositely charged particles.

The gravitational force is the force that is responsible for the attraction between particles with the same charge.

Quantum mechanics is the theory that describes the behavior of matter at the atomic and molecular level.

Statistical mechanics is the theory that describes the behavior of matter in bulk.

Thermodynamics is the theory that describes the relationship between heat and other forms of energy.

The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a closed system always increases.