Quantum algorithms differ from classical algorithms in three fundamental ways: they use qubits instead of bits, they are probabilistic instead of deterministic, and they can be parallelized in a way that classical algorithms cannot.

A qubit is a quantum bit, which is the basic unit of information in quantum computing. It can be in a superposition of states, meaning that it can be both 0 and 1 at the same time.

Shor's algorithm is the most famous quantum algorithm because it can factor large numbers exponentially faster than any known classical algorithm. This could have a major impact on cryptography, as many cryptographic algorithms rely on the difficulty of factoring large numbers.

Shor's algorithm has a time complexity of $O(n^{log n})$, which is significantly faster than the best known classical algorithm, which has a time complexity of $O(n^{1/3})$.

Grover's algorithm is a quantum algorithm that can search an unsorted database of $N$ items in $O(sqrt(N))$ time, which is significantly faster than any known classical algorithm, which requires $O(N)$ time.

The Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm is a quantum algorithm that can distinguish between balanced and unbalanced functions with just one query to the function, which is impossible for any classical algorithm.

Simon's algorithm is a quantum algorithm that can find the period of a function with just two queries to the function, which is impossible for any classical algorithm.

Quantum circuits differ from classical circuits in three fundamental ways: they use qubits instead of bits, they can be parallelized, and they can be used to implement quantum algorithms.

A quantum gate is a quantum operator that acts on qubits. It can be used to manipulate the state of the qubits.

The Hadamard gate is the most common type of quantum gate. It is a unitary gate that acts on a single qubit and puts it into a superposition of states.

The CNOT gate is a controlled-NOT gate. It applies a NOT operation to one qubit if and only if another qubit is in the state $|1 angle$.

The Toffoli gate is a controlled-controlled-NOT gate. It applies a NOT operation to one qubit if and only if two other qubits are both in the state $|1 angle$.

Quantum entanglement is the correlation of two or more qubits such that the state of one qubit cannot be described independently of the other(s).

The no-cloning theorem states that it is impossible to copy an unknown quantum state. This is because the act of copying a quantum state would disturb it, and therefore change its state.

Quantum teleportation is the process of transferring a quantum state from one location to another. This is done by entangling two qubits, measuring one of the qubits, and then using the measurement results to reconstruct the quantum state at the other location.