Scientific knowledge is objective and universal.

Scientific knowledge is socially and historically constructed.

Scientific knowledge is derived from divine revelation.

Scientific knowledge is a product of individual genius.

Max Weber

Emile Durkheim

Thomas Kuhn

Robert K. Merton

A set of shared beliefs and assumptions about the world.

A specific theory or model.

A method of scientific investigation.

A body of scientific knowledge.

Through gradual accumulation of new knowledge.

Through sudden and revolutionary shifts.

Through a combination of gradual and revolutionary change.

Scientific paradigms never change.

Social factors have no role in the production of scientific knowledge.

Social factors play a minor role in the production of scientific knowledge.

Social factors play a major role in the production of scientific knowledge.

The role of social factors in the production of scientific knowledge is unclear.

It undermines the objectivity of scientific knowledge.

It has no effect on the objectivity of scientific knowledge.

It enhances the objectivity of scientific knowledge.

The relationship between the social construction of scientific knowledge and the objectivity of scientific knowledge is unclear.

Science policy should be based on the assumption that scientific knowledge is objective and universal.

Science policy should be based on the assumption that scientific knowledge is socially and historically constructed.

Science policy should be based on a combination of the assumptions that scientific knowledge is objective and universal and that it is socially and historically constructed.

Science policy should not be based on any assumptions about the nature of scientific knowledge.

The challenge of relativism.

The challenge of incommensurability.

The challenge of reflexivity.

All of the above.

The challenge that scientific knowledge is relative to the social and cultural context in which it is produced.

The challenge that scientific knowledge is relative to the individual scientist who produces it.

The challenge that scientific knowledge is relative to the time and place in which it is produced.

All of the above.

The challenge that different scientific paradigms are incommensurable, meaning that they cannot be compared or evaluated against each other.

The challenge that different scientific theories are incommensurable, meaning that they cannot be compared or evaluated against each other.

The challenge that different scientific methods are incommensurable, meaning that they cannot be compared or evaluated against each other.

All of the above.

The challenge that scientists are not always aware of the social and cultural factors that shape their research and practice.

The challenge that scientists are not always able to control the social and cultural factors that shape their research and practice.

The challenge that scientists are not always able to account for the social and cultural factors that shape their research and practice in their scientific work.

All of the above.

By making scientists more aware of the social and cultural factors that shape their research and practice.

By helping scientists to develop more effective methods for controlling the social and cultural factors that shape their research and practice.

By enabling scientists to better account for the social and cultural factors that shape their research and practice in their scientific work.

All of the above.

By helping policymakers to understand the social and cultural factors that shape scientific research and practice.

By helping policymakers to develop more effective policies for supporting scientific research and practice.

By helping policymakers to better account for the social and cultural factors that shape scientific research and practice in their policy decisions.

All of the above.

By making the public more aware of the social and cultural factors that shape scientific research and practice.

By helping the public to develop more effective methods for evaluating scientific claims.

By enabling the public to better engage with scientists and scientific institutions.

All of the above.