Kanada, the founder of the Vaisheshika school of Indian philosophy, proposed the concept of 'akasha' as the fifth and most subtle element, representing space and ether.

In the Nyaya-Vaisheshika school, space and matter are considered to be two interdependent and inseparable aspects of reality. Space provides the locus for matter to exist, while matter occupies space.

In the Samkhya philosophy, prakriti (nature) and purusha (consciousness) are considered to be two independent and distinct substances. Prakriti is the material cause of the universe, while purusha is the efficient cause.

The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad discusses the concept of 'brahman' as the ultimate reality that pervades all space. It states that 'brahman' is infinite, limitless, and beyond the limitations of time and space.

In the Advaita Vedanta school, 'atman' (individual self) and 'brahman' (ultimate reality) are considered to be one and the same. This is expressed in the famous phrase 'aham brahmasmi' ('I am brahman').

Nagarjuna, the founder of the Madhyamaka school of Buddhism, proposed the concept of 'sunyata' (emptiness) as the fundamental nature of reality. He argued that all phenomena are empty of inherent existence and that their apparent existence is due to interdependence and conventional designation.

In the Madhyamaka school of Buddhism, samsara (the cycle of birth and rebirth) and nirvana (the state of liberation from samsara) are considered to be one and the same. This is because both samsara and nirvana are empty of inherent existence and are merely conventional designations.

Kapila, the founder of the Samkhya school of Indian philosophy, proposed the concept of 'jiva' as the individual soul that resides in the body. He argued that the jiva is a distinct substance from matter and that it is responsible for consciousness and agency.

In the Samkhya philosophy, jiva (individual soul) and prakriti (nature) are considered to be two distinct and separate substances. Jiva is the conscious principle, while prakriti is the material principle.

The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad discusses the concept of 'atman' as the immortal and unchanging self that resides within the body. It states that 'atman' is the true essence of the individual and that it is beyond the limitations of time and space.

In the Advaita Vedanta school, 'avidya' (ignorance) is considered to be the cause of 'maya' (illusion). Avidya is the mistaken belief that the world is real and separate from 'brahman' (ultimate reality), while maya is the projection of this illusion onto the world.

Kapila, the founder of the Samkhya school of Indian philosophy, proposed the concept of 'gunas' as the three fundamental qualities that constitute all matter. These gunas are sattva (purity), rajas (activity), and tamas (inertia).

In the Samkhya philosophy, 'gunas' (the three fundamental qualities) are considered to be the constituents of 'prakriti' (nature). Prakriti is the material principle from which all matter is derived.

The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad discusses the concept of 'hiranyagarbha' as the golden embryo from which the universe emerged. It states that 'hiranyagarbha' is the source of all creation and that it contains all the elements of the universe within itself.

In the Advaita Vedanta school, 'maya' (illusion) is considered to be the cause of 'brahman' (ultimate reality). Maya is the projection of the illusion of duality onto the world, which obscures the true nature of brahman.