Causal determinism asserts that every event in the universe is caused by a prior event, and that this chain of causation extends infinitely into the past.

Baruch Spinoza was a 17th-century Dutch philosopher who argued that everything in the universe is determined by the laws of nature.

If every event is caused by a prior event, then it seems to follow that human beings do not have free will. However, some philosophers argue that causal determinism is compatible with free will, if free will is understood as the ability to make choices that are not determined by prior events.

The problem of evil is a classic argument against the existence of God. It asks, if God is all-powerful, all-knowing, and all-loving, then why does evil exist? If God is all-powerful, he could prevent evil from happening. If he is all-knowing, he would know that evil is going to happen. And if he is all-loving, he would not want evil to happen. The existence of evil seems to contradict the idea of a benevolent and omnipotent God.

The argument from ignorance is a skeptical argument that says that we cannot know for sure whether or not causal determinism is true because we do not know everything about the universe, the laws of nature, or the human mind. This argument is often used to defend the idea of free will.

Laplace's demon is a hypothetical being who knows the exact state of the universe at any given moment and can use this knowledge to predict the future with perfect accuracy. This argument suggests that causal determinism is true, because if it were possible to know the exact state of the universe at any given moment, then it would be possible to predict the future with perfect accuracy.

Chaos theory is a branch of mathematics that studies the behavior of chaotic systems. Chaotic systems are systems that are highly sensitive to initial conditions. This means that even a small change in the initial conditions of a chaotic system can lead to a large change in the outcome. This makes it impossible to predict the future of a chaotic system with perfect accuracy. This suggests that causal determinism is false, because if the future were determined by the past, then it would be possible to predict the future with perfect accuracy.

Quantum mechanics is a branch of physics that studies the behavior of matter and energy at the atomic and subatomic level. Quantum mechanics is a non-deterministic theory, which means that it does not allow for the possibility of predicting the future with perfect accuracy. This suggests that causal determinism is false, because if the future were determined by the past, then it would be possible to predict the future with perfect accuracy.

The argument from consciousness against causal determinism is based on the idea that consciousness is a non-physical phenomenon that cannot be explained by the laws of physics. This suggests that consciousness is not subject to the same causal laws that govern the rest of the universe. This would mean that causal determinism is false, because it would allow for the possibility of events that are not caused by prior events.

The argument from moral responsibility against causal determinism is based on the idea that if our actions are determined by prior events, then we cannot be held morally responsible for them. This is because moral responsibility requires that we have the ability to choose between right and wrong. If our actions are determined by prior events, then we do not have this ability. This would mean that causal determinism is false, because it would undermine the concept of moral responsibility.

Compatibilism is the view that free will and causal determinism are not necessarily incompatible. Compatibilists argue that free will is compatible with causal determinism if we have the ability to choose between different courses of action, or if we have the ability to make choices that are not determined by our desires or our past experiences. This would mean that causal determinism is not necessarily incompatible with the idea of free will.

Hard determinism is the view that causal determinism is true and that free will is an illusion. Hard determinists argue that our actions are entirely determined by prior events and that we have no real choice in the matter. They argue that the idea of free will is a myth.

Libertarianism is the view that free will is real and that causal determinism is false. Libertarians argue that we have the ability to make choices that are not determined by prior events. They argue that the laws of nature do not apply to human beings, or that there is some kind of non-physical realm in which free will can operate.

The middle ground position on the debate between causal determinism and free will is that causal determinism is true, but that free will is still possible. This position is often called compatibilism. Compatibilists argue that free will is compatible with causal determinism if we have the ability to choose between different courses of action, or if we have the ability to make choices that are not determined by our desires or our past experiences.