Smelting is a pyrometallurgical process that involves heating an ore at high temperatures in the presence of a reducing agent to extract the metal.

Roasting is a process in which an ore is heated in the presence of air or oxygen to oxidize the metal content, making it more reactive for subsequent processing.

Carbon is a widely used reducing agent in pyrometallurgical processes due to its strong affinity for oxygen, which helps in reducing metal oxides to their elemental form.

A flux is a substance added to an ore or molten metal to promote the removal of impurities by forming a slag, which is a low-melting-point mixture of impurities that can be easily separated.

Electrolysis is a hydrometallurgical process that involves passing an electric current through an electrolyte solution containing metal ions to reduce them to their elemental form.

Flotation is a process used to separate valuable minerals from gangue minerals by selectively attaching hydrophobic particles to air bubbles, which then rise to the surface of a slurry.

Electrorefining is a process used to purify metals by electrolytically dissolving the impure metal in an electrolyte solution and depositing the pure metal on a cathode.

Annealing is a heat treatment process that involves heating a metal to a specific temperature and then slowly cooling it to relieve internal stresses and improve its ductility.

Annealing is a solid-state phase transformation that involves heating a metal to a specific temperature and then slowly cooling it to relieve internal stresses and improve its ductility.

Tempering is a heat treatment process that involves heating a metal to a specific temperature below the critical temperature and then cooling it to increase its toughness.

Stainless steel is an example of a ferrous alloy, which is an alloy that contains iron as its primary component.

Carburizing is a process in which a metal is heated in the presence of a carbon-rich atmosphere to increase its hardness and wear resistance.

Brass is an example of a non-ferrous alloy, which is an alloy that does not contain iron as its primary component.

Nitriding is a process in which a metal is heated in the presence of a nitrogen-rich atmosphere to increase its hardness and wear resistance.

Concrete is an example of a composite material, which is a material that is made up of two or more different materials that are combined to create a new material with different properties.