Angiotensin II

Vasopressin

Epinephrine

Prostaglandins

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs

There are three kidney structures which are formed at different times during development.

The final adult kidney forms from the pronephros.

The ureteric bud forms the draining system.

Capillaries invaginate the tubules to form glomeruli.

The final adult kidney rises up the body during development.

The efferent arterioles deliver blood to the glomerulus.

Vasa recta receive their blood supply from the efferent arterioles.

Vasoconstriction of the afferent arterioles increases glomerular filtration.

Vasoconstriction of the efferent arterioles decreases glomerular filtration.

Vasoconstriction reduces the resistance to flow in a blood vessel.

Water molecules can be pumped directly by active transport.

Active transport delays concentration gradient.

Counter-transport of oppositely charged molecules can maintain electroneutrality.

Water moves by osmosis from a region of high osmolality to a region of low osmolality.

Active transport can establish an electrical gradient.

Failure of the ureteric bud to develop causes hypospadias.

Horseshoe kidneys occur when the pronephros fails to regress.

Adult kidneys can only have one renal artery each.

Early splitting of the ureteric bud can result in one kidney having two ureters.

The ureteric bud forms the glans penis.

Erythropoietin is a protein.

Hypoxia (a low level of oxygen) inhibits erythropoietin production.

Most erythropoietin is made in the pancreas in adults.

Erythropoietin stimulates white blood cell production.

Erythropoietin detects hypoxia easily.

The major changes in tubular fluid composition are made in the proximal tubules.

The proximal tubules substantially increases the concentration of urine.

Part of the loop of henle is permeable to water.

The vasa recta are blood vessels.

The walls of the tubules are made up of epithelial cells.

Erythropoietin levels are usually lowered.

Anemia is a common problem.

Erythropoietin can be given to treat the anemia.

Erythropoietin is usually given as oral tablets.

Iron deficiency can occur.

The key hormone regulating water reabsorption is secreted from the posterior pituitary gland.

Aquaporin is the main hormone regulating water reabsorption.

The vasa recta is the same structure as the loop of Henle.

There are osmoreceptors in the pituitary gland.

There is no limit to how much the body can concentrate urine.

Potassium is the major extracellular ion.

Within cells, the concentration of potassium is lower than that of sodium.

Potassium excretion is regulated by altering potassium secretion.

The 3Na⁺/2K⁺ ATPase pumps potassium out of the cells.

Selected cells have potassium channels.

The concentration of sodium ions is generally higher inside the cells than outside the cells.

Sodium is not filtered in the glomerulus.

Most sodium is reabsorbed in the distal tubule.

There is no active transport of sodium.

The diuretic drug furosemide blocks the NaK₂Cl channel in the loop of henle.

Overall human metabolism results in acid production.

Buffers must be strong acids or bases.

Carbon dioxide directly raises the pH of body fluids.

The pH of a buffer solution is always 7.0.

A decrease in the plasma level of bicarbonate ions (HCO3^-) will directly raise the pH of plasma.

Staphylococcus aureus is a common cause.

Lower urinary tract infection is a superficial infection.

Can cause renal damage if it involves the kidney.

Upper urinary tract infection are minimised during pregnancy.

Causes white cells to occur in the urine.

Carbon dioxide can pass across cell membranes.

Proteins can act as buffers.

The lungs excrete carbon dioxide.

The kidney absorbs all the bicarbonate ions.

There are no buffers in urine.

Acid can be excreted as NH3 ions.

Acid excretion mainly occurs in the early nephron.

In the distal nephron, secreted hydrogen ions mainly contribute to bicarbonate reabsorption.

Sodium phosphate is a urinary buffer.

Urine is usually alkaline.