Many monocots also have leaves with parallel veins.

When a dicot germinates, it produces two seed leaves.

Coprinus comatus is a common fungus often seen growing on lawns, along gravel roads and waste areas. The young fruit bodies first appear as white cylinders emerging from the ground, then the bell-shaped caps open out. The caps are white and covered with scales.

Oak wilt is a fungal disease that can quickly kill an oak tree. It is caused by the fungus Ceratocystis fagacearum. The fungus is spread from diseased to healthy trees by insect vectors or via connections between tree roots.

The golden oyster mushroom, like other species of oyster mushroom, is a wood-decay fungus. In the wild, P. citrinopileatus most commonly decays hardwoods such as elm.P. citrinopileatus mushrooms are a source of antioxidants. Extracts from P. citrinopileatus have been studied for their antihyperglycemic properties, decreasing blood sugar levels.

Its fiddleheads are used as a cooked vegetable in Japan and are believed to be responsible for the high rate of stomach cancer in Japan. It is also one of the world's most important agricultural weeds, especially in the British highlands, and often poisons cattle and horses.

Botanically, mosses are non-vascular plants in the land plant division Bryophyta. 

A diploid sporophyte phase produces haploid spores by meiosis (a process of cell division which reduces the number of chromosomes by a half).

Brake fern was discovered to have the ability to hyperaccumulate (absorb large amounts of) arsenic from soil. The fern was growing at a central Florida site contaminated with large amounts of copper arsenate in the soil. The discovery may lead to the use of this fern as a potential bioremediation plant.

Gliotoxin is a sulfur-containing mycotoxin produced by several species of fungi, including pathogens of humans such as Aspergillus fumigatus.It possesses immunosuppressive properties as it may suppress and cause apoptosis in certain types of cells of the immune system, including neutrophils, eosinophils, granulocytes, macrophages, and thymocytes.

Cycads are an ancient group of seed plants with a crown of large compound leaves and a stout trunk. They are a minor component of the flora in tropical and subtropical regions today, but during the Jurassic period, they were a common sight in many parts of the world. 

Boreal conifers have many wintertime adaptations. The narrow conical shape of northern conifers, and their downward-drooping limbs, help them shed snow. Many of them seasonally alter their biochemistry to make them more resistant to freezing.

A vessel element is one of the cell types found in xylem.Vessel elements are typically found in flowering plants (angiosperms) but absent from most gymnosperms such as conifers. Vessel elements are the main feature distinguishing the hardwood of angiosperms from the softwood of conifers.

Mycotoxins can appear in the food chain as a result of fungal infection of crops, either by being eaten directly by humans or by being used as livestock feed. Mycotoxins greatly resist decomposition or being broken down in digestion, so they remain in the food chain in meat and dairy products.

Each microsporangium is lined with a nutritive tissue layer called the tapetum and initially contains diploid pollen mother cells.

It is the innermost layer of cortex formed by compactly arranged barrel-shaped cells. Some of the cells in the endodermis are thin-walled and are known as passage cells. The passage cells allow water to pass into the xylem vessels.

Epiblema is the outermost covering of the root formed by single layer of compactly arranged, barrel-shaped, parenchyma cells. The cells are characteristically thin-walled since they are involved in absorption of water. A cuticle and stomata are absent. Some of the epiblema cells are produced into long unicellular projections called root hairs. Hence, the epiblema is also known as piliferous layer.

Tetraphis is a genus of two species of moss (Bryophyta). Its name refers to its four large peristome teeth.

Within the megagametophyte one of the two sperm unites with the egg, forming a zygote, and the second sperm enters the central cell forming the endosperm mother cell, which completes the double fertilization process.

The non-vascular plants usually grow in moist and shady places. The moist environment is essential for easy uptake of the water since they lack the vascular tissues like the xylem and the phloem.

The single-celled haploid spore germinates, dividing by the normal process (mitosis), which maintains the number of chromosomes at n. The result is a multi-cellular haploid organism, called the gametophyte (because it produces gametes at maturity).

Medullary parenchyma is the parenchyma, which is found radially arranged in between the vascular bundles in the stem. It is meant for storage of reserve food.

Completoria is itself monotypic, containing a single species, Completoria complens. The species is rare, known only from greenhouse cultures where it grows as an obligate intracellular parasite of fern gametophytes.

Pine trees are susceptible to pine pitch canker. Pine pitch canker first kills the tips of branches, then spreads down entire branches, and ultimately it can kill the whole tree. Infected trees die because the fungus thrives inside the tree's vascular tissue and blocks its water supply. The fungus is spread through the beetles that attack the pine cones.

Two large green hemispherical structures which enclose the embryonic axis is called as the cotyledons. The cotyledons may be one or two in number depending on the type of plant. The cotyledons are important because it give nutrients during the early development of the plant before starting the process of photosynthesis.

Ochratoxin is a mycotoxin that comes in three secondary metabolite forms, A, B, and C. All are produced by Penicillium and Aspergillus species. The three forms differ in that Ochratoxin B (OTB) is a nonchlorinated form of Ochratoxin A (OTA) and that Ochratoxin C (OTC) is an ethyl ester form Ochratoxin A. Aspergillus ochraceus is found as a contaminant of a wide range of commodities including beverages such as beer and wine.

Red tides are unrelated to movements of the tides.They are not necessarily red and many have no discoloration at all.They are

Dormancy that is caused by an impermeable seed coat is known as physical dormancy. Physical dormancy is the result of impermeable layer(s) that develops during maturation and drying of the seed or fruit.This impermeable layer prevents the seed from taking up water or gases. As a result, the seed is prevented from germinating until dormancy is broken.

Lecanoromycetes is the largest class of lichenized fungi.It belongs to the subphylum Pezizomycotina in the phylum Ascomycota.The asci (spore-bearing cells) of the Lecanoromycetes most often release spores by rostrate dehiscence.

Ceratium furca blooms because of coastal eutrophication. Blooms of this species cause toxic red tides (red-brown), damage fish gills and deplete dissolved oxygen causing anoxic conditions

Psathyrella aquatica with true gills has been observed fruiting underwater in the clear, cold, flowing water. Fruiting bodies develop and mature in the main channel, where they are constantly submerged, and were observed fruiting over 11 wk. These mushrooms develop underwater, not on wood recently washed into the river.

The true fungi or the eumycetes are special types of achlorophyllous thallophytic organisms living a parasitic or a saprophytic mode of existence.

Isospora belli is a species of internal parasites .It is responsible for the condition isosporiasis. Autofluorescence aids detection.

An oocyst with one sporoblast is released in stool of infected person.After the oocyst has been released, the sporoblast matures further and divides into two.

The algal partner protects the fungal partner by retaining water, serving as a larger capture area for mineral nutrients and, in some cases, provides minerals obtained from the substrate.

Association between roots of higher plants e.g pine, birch and fungal hyphae is called mycorrhiza. It exhibits the phenomenon of symbiosis. Here both the organisms in association are mutually benefitted. In this, fungal hyphae take nutrition from the plant and in return increase surface area for absorption of water and minerals for the plant. Mycorrhizal roots occur in superficial layers of the soil.

Lichens are the indicator of pollution. By studying the behaviour of lichens the type of pollution can be detected. They are the most sensitive and die in S02 rich area.

Colura zoophaga is a small epiphytic liverwort . It possesses elongated water sacs formed by the fusion of the upper leaf margin rolling inward down to the rest of the leaf. A funnel-shaped channel at the lower leaf margin leads to a small opening into the water sac and is covered by a movable lid that only open inward.It is because of this bladder-like configuration that these traps have been compared to those of Utricularia.

The plant body of a hornwort is a haploid gametophyte stage. This stage usually grows as a thin rosette or ribbon-like thallus between one and five centimeters in diameter.

A squamulose lichen is a lichen that is composed usually overlapping scales called squamules. If they appear raise from the substrate and appear leafy, the lichen may appear to be a foliose lichen, but the underside does not have a skin (cortex), as foliose lichens do.

C. merolae is a club-shaped, unicellular red alga that lives in highly acidic environments and in warm conditions. C. merolae has a single chloroplast and a single mitochondrion, but lacks a vacuole and a cell wall. The organism's genome was the first full algal genome to be sequenced in 2004; its plastid was sequenced in 2000 and 2003, and its mitochondrion in 1998.

Plocamium pacificum is a beautiful red alga that can be found in both intertidal and subtidal salt water habitats. It is dark red in color and has an elastic, rubbery feel to it. Its height can range from 4-25 cm. The branches are arranged to form a dense and delicate framework. All of the branches come off of the main axes in an alternate pattern. The branchlets are small and are arranged on the branches like the teeth of a comb.

The thallophytes are in the most primitive plants, lacking roots, stems, leaves, and conducting cells. The simplest thallophytes are in the subphylum of autophytic thallophytes, which include blue-green bacteria (or cyanobacteria, formerly known as blue-green algae), diatoms, and algae.

Within the thallus there is a single, centrally located, longitudinal filament called a uniaxial. This filament is the chain of apical cells and is therefore the site of main algal growth. The apical cells are larger than the other cells and can be distinguished with a microscope.

Monocots and herbaceous dicots typically exhibit only primary growth.The important factors affecting plant growth and development include heredity, hormones, nutrition, and environment.

Straw mushrooms are grown on rice straw beds and picked immature, during the button or egg phase and before the veil ruptures. They are adaptable and take four to five days to mature.

Enzymes of Penicillium camemberti play a role in the manufacture of the cheeses Camembert and Brie, while those of Penicillium roqueforti do the same for Gorgonzola, Roquefort and Stilton.

During periods favoured by rapid growth and population expansion, vegetative fission dominates yielding motile haploid schizonts.

They are very abundant in tropical and warm waters, although many are found in cooler waters.Red algae are typically found in marine waters attached to rocks or other plants in the calmer, deeper waters beyond the tidal zone.

Chlorella is very popular in Japan. It is also used as a nutritional supplement with possible effects on metabolic rate.It can reduce mercury levels in humans by chelation of the mercury to the cell wall of the organism.

Gibberella stilboides is a nectriacine fungus. It is a plant pathogen, and causes collar rot in coffee seedings.

Eucheuma is a group of red seaweeds representing the Tribe Eucheumatoideae used in the production of carrageenan, an important product used in cosmetics, food processing, and industrial uses, as well as a food source for those living in Indonesia and the Philippines.

Oscillatoria is blue greenish in colour, usually free floating or entwined with other algae. It is widespread. There are approximately 150 known species of which 47 are known to occur in Australia. Some species causes contact irritation leading to severe dermatitis.

The most form of reproduction is asexual, where daughter cells form by simple mitosis and division of the cell. The daughter cells will be genetically identical to that of the original cell. The thecal plates may either be divided, or completely shed and then reformed.

Chlorella is a single-celled freshwater alga. Chlorella contains vitamin C and carotenoids, both of which are antioxidants . It also  contains high concentrations of iron and B-complex vitamins

Gyromitrin is a toxin and carcinogen present in several members of the fungal genus Gyromitra, most notably the false morel G. esculenta. It is unstable and is easily hydrolyzed to the toxic compound monomethylhydrazine, a component of some rocket fuels.

Heterocystous cells can perform nitrogen fixation by absorbing free nitrogen in the air and transform free nitrogen to organic substances that may be used to fertilize the soil. The number and position of heterocysts are important features used to classify blue-green algae.

The Beefsteak fungus is large, dark red and slimy on top, and pale yellow underneath. Its flesh resembles a raw steak (hence the common name) and, when the fungus is young, oozes red droplets that look like blood. It is edible.

Craticula is a genus of diatom that lies on or in the top layers of sediments in the freshwater to brackish water environments it inhabits.In addition to frustule morphology the genus differs from closely related species by its sexual reproduction and movement in response to light.

Navicula is a genus of boat-shaped diatom.Navicula play an important role in global ecology, producing about a quarter of all the oxygen within Earth's biosphere and serving as keystone species in the food chain of many environments where they provide a staple for the diets of many aquatic species.

Raphid pennate diatoms are capable of gliding movement that is caused by the secretion of mucopolysaccharides, derived from vesicles or crystalline bodies, through the raphe. Araphid pennate diatoms lack a raphe and posses a central, unornamented area known as the sternum or pseudoraphe. No centric diatom has a raphe.

Oscillatoria, is part of the Blue Green Algae (Cyanobacteria) family. It is blue greenish in colour, usually free floating, cylindrical or sometimes slightly tapering, unbranched filaments in aquatic environments.It is implicated in irritation of skin and mucous membranes suffered by people swimming.

Fern fronds often bear sporangia, where the plant's spores are formed, usually on the underside (abaxial surface) of the pinnae, but sometimes marginally or scattered over the frond.

Blechnum procerum, commonly known as mountain kiokio or small kiokio, is a species of fern found in New Zealand. Mountain kiokio is found from lowland to alpine areas amongst forest, scrub and tussock.

Also called resurrection fern this autotroph is interesting in that it appears to resurrect from the dead. It lives in very dry climates and when there is a lack of water, it shrivels up into a grey ball and can stay like this for a number of years. When it finally rains, the resurrection fern grows and turns green.

Schizochytrium is a genus of unicellular protists found in coastal marine habitats. They are assigned to the stramenopiles, a group which also contains kelp and various of micro-algae. Certain species produce large amounts of docosahexaenoic acid and are grown commercially for production of this oil for biofeeds, biomass and biofuels.

Lecanoromycetes is the largest class of lichenized fungi.It belongs to the subphylum Pezizomycotina in the phylum Ascomycota.The asci (spore-bearing cells) of the Lecanoromycetes most often release spores by rostrate dehiscence.

All green algae have mitochondria with flat cristae. When present, paired flagella are used to move the cell. They are anchored by a cross-shaped system of microtubules and fibrous strands.

They are the layers of cells, which are loosely packed and are located just beneath the palisade mesophyll. It plays a vital role in holding the products of photosynthesis.

Serrate leaves are saw-toothed with asymmetrical teeth pointing forward, such as Urtica.

New species are not produced due to self-pollination. Progeny shows less vigour due to continuous self-pollination. New characters are not introduced.

A chasmogamous flower is usually smaller and requires less energy to reproduce. It is also structured to bring its reproductive organs into contact, making it more likely that fertilisation will be successful.

These are bone-like or columnar with swollen ends. For example: sub-epidermal covering of legume seeds.

Adventitious embryony is a type of agamospermy where there is no development of gametophytes. The embryo is formed from cells of the diploid sporophyte like the integument.

Puccinia asparagi is the causative agent of asparagus rust. It is an autoecious fungus, meaning that all stages of its life cycle – pyciniospores, aeciospores, and teliospores all develop upon the same host plant .

Fusarium graminearum, is a plant pathogen which causes fusarium head blight, a devastating disease on wheat and barley.

It causes Verticillium Wilt or Maple Wilt. It attacks over 300 different cultivated plants and can persist as a saprotrophic soil organism for more than 15 years.

Butanol can be made from algae or diatoms using only a solar powered biorefinery. This fuel has an energy density 10% less than gasoline, and greater than that of either ethanol or methanol. In most gasoline engines, butanol can be used in place of gasoline with no modifications.

The gametophyte may replicate using monospores, but produces sperm in spermatangia, and eggs in carpogonium.

Fucus vesiculosus was the original source of iodine, discovered in 1811, and was used extensively to treat goitre, a swelling of the thyroid gland related to iodine deficiency.

Pine trees are susceptible to pine pitch canker. Pine pitch canker first kills the tips of branches, then spreads down entire branches, and ultimately it can kill the whole tree. Infected trees die because the fungus thrives inside the tree's vascular tissue and blocks its water supply. The fungus is spread through the beetles that attack the pine cones.

Members of the Ascomycota such as Stachybotrys chartarum are responsible for fading of woollen textiles, which is a common problem especially in the tropics.

Ergot (Claviceps purpurea) is a direct menace to humans when it attacks wheat or rye and produces highly poisonous and carcinogenic alkaloids, causing ergotism if consumed. Symptoms include hallucinations, stomach cramp, and a burning sensation in the limbs (Saint Anthony's Fire).

The Saccharomycotina comprise most of the true yeasts, such as baker's yeast and Candida, which are single-celled (unicellular) fungi, which reproduce vegetatively by budding. Most of these species were previously classified in a taxon called Hemiascomycetes.

Calocera cornea is a jelly fungus that grows on decaying wood. It is a member of the Dacrymycetales, an order of fungi characterized by their unique tuning fork basidia.

This fungi is usually isolated as a saprophytic contaminant. World-wide, known as an insect parasite. Sympodial development of single-celled conidia on a narrow geniculate or zig-zag rachis emanating from a flask-shaped conidiophore.

Mushrooms are a low-calorie food eaten cooked, raw or as a garnish to a meal. In a 100 g (3.5 ounce) serving, mushrooms are an excellent source (higher than 20% of the Daily Value, DV) of B vitamins, such as riboflavin, niacin and pantothenic acid, an excellent source of the essential minerals.

Patients with primary immunodeficiencies are susceptible to Aspergillus species infections particularly when cell-mediated immunity is compromised.

Araneosa is a fungal genus in the family Agaricaceae. This is a monotypic genus, containing the single gasteroid species Araneosa columellata.

Fly agaric is a mushroom and psychoactive basidiomycete fungus.The quintessential toadstool, it is a large white-gilled, white-spotted, usually red mushroom, one of the most recognisable and widely encountered in popular culture.

Phytophthora spp. are mostly pathogens of dicotyledons, and are relatively host-specific parasites. Many species of Phytophthora are plant pathogens of considerable economic importance. Phytophthora infestans was the infective agent of the potato blight that caused the Great Irish Famine

The majority of species within the Auriculariales produce gelatinous basidiocarps (fruit bodies) on dead wood. In some these are conspicuous and may be ear-shaped, button-shaped, lobed, or effused. Their hymenophores (spore-bearing surfaces) may be smooth, warted, veined, toothed (as in the genus Pseudohydnum), or poroid (as in the genera Elmerina and Protomerulius).

Yeasts, like all fungi, may have asexual and sexual reproductive cycles. The most common mode of vegetative growth in yeast is asexual reproduction by budding. Here, a small bud (also known as a bleb), or daughter cell, is formed on the parent cell.

Deuteromycota, or imperfect fungi, is an artificial group comprising fungi for which no sexual reproductive cyclehas been observed. Penicillium, from which penicillin is obtained, is a deuteromycete.

The Pucciniomycetes (formerly known as the Urediniomycetes) are a class of fungi in the Pucciniomycotina subdivision of the Basidiomycota. The class contains 5 orders, 21 families, 190 genera, and 8016 species. It includes several important plant pathogens causing forms of fungal rust.

Pichia pastoris is a species of methylotrophic yeast. Pichia is widely used for protein expression using recombinant DNA techniques. Hence, it is used in biochemical and genetic research in academia and the biotechnical industry.

Equisetum is the only living genus in Equisetaceae, a family of vascular plants that reproduce by spores rather than seeds. It is a living fossil as it is the only living genus of the entire class Equisetopsida, which for over one hundred million years was much more diverse and dominated the understory of late Paleozoic forests.

Ferns are vascular plants differing from lycophytes by having true leaves (megaphylls), which are often pinnate. They differ from seed plants (gymnosperms and angiosperms) in their mode of reproduction lacking flowers and seeds.

Mesophyll is the ground tissue that occurs between the two epidermal layers. It is exclusively composed of chlorenchyma cells. The mesophyll is characteristically differentiated into two regions, namely an upper palisade parenchyma and a lower spongy parenchyma.

Hygrohypnum styriacum, commonly known as Snow Brook-moss or Hygrohypnum Moss, is a species of moss found in the Northern Hemisphere. It is present in Greenland, Iceland, Norway, Poland, Slovakia, Sweden, Scotland and Spain.