Particulate matter, particularly fine particles (PM2.5) and ultrafine particles (PM0.1), has been consistently associated with an increased risk of lung cancer in numerous epidemiological studies.

Air pollutants, particularly polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and other genotoxic compounds, can directly damage DNA and lead to mutations that may initiate or promote cancer development.

Benzene, a component of gasoline and other petroleum products, has been linked to an increased risk of childhood leukemia, particularly acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL).

Transboundary air pollution refers to the movement of air pollutants across national or regional boundaries, often leading to air pollution problems in areas far from the original source of emissions.

Nitrogen oxides (NOx), particularly nitrogen dioxide (NO2), are key precursors to the formation of ground-level ozone in the presence of sunlight and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).

Biomagnification refers to the increasing concentration of certain pollutants, such as heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants (POPs), in organisms at higher trophic levels of the food chain.

Arsenic, a naturally occurring element found in soil and water, has been associated with an increased risk of bladder cancer, particularly in areas with high levels of arsenic contamination.

Atmospheric deposition refers to the removal of air pollutants from the atmosphere through processes such as wet deposition (rain and snow) and dry deposition (settling of particles and gases onto surfaces).

Formaldehyde, a colorless gas used in the production of various household products and building materials, has been linked to an increased risk of nasopharyngeal carcinoma, particularly in areas with high levels of indoor air pollution.

Photochemical reactions, driven by sunlight, play a crucial role in the transformation of air pollutants, leading to the formation of secondary pollutants such as ozone, smog, and fine particulate matter.

Asbestos, a naturally occurring mineral fiber, is strongly associated with an increased risk of mesothelioma, particularly among individuals who have been exposed to asbestos fibers through occupational or environmental sources.

Air pollution emissions refer to the release of pollutants into the atmosphere from various sources, including industrial processes, power generation, transportation, and natural sources such as volcanoes and forest fires.

Aflatoxins, a group of toxic compounds produced by certain fungi that contaminate food crops, have been linked to an increased risk of liver cancer, particularly in regions with high levels of aflatoxin contamination in food.

Atmospheric transport refers to the movement and dispersion of air pollutants by wind currents, leading to the transport of pollutants over long distances and the formation of regional and global air pollution problems.

Cadmium, a heavy metal found in certain industrial processes and products, has been linked to an increased risk of kidney cancer, particularly among individuals exposed to high levels of cadmium through occupational or environmental sources.