The Carolingian Empire, ruled by Charlemagne, was a powerful empire in Europe during the 8th and 9th centuries.

The Avignon Papacy was a period in the 14th century when the popes resided in Avignon, France, rather than Rome.

The Fall of Constantinople in 1453 is often seen as the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Renaissance.

The Corpus Juris Civilis was a compilation of Roman law ordered by Justinian I in the 6th century.

The Silk Road was a network of trade routes that connected Europe with Asia, allowing for the exchange of goods, ideas, and technologies.

The Almoravid Empire was a Berber Muslim empire that ruled much of the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa in the 11th and 12th centuries.

Scholasticism was a philosophical and theological movement that emphasized the use of reason and logic to understand religious and philosophical questions.

Notre Dame Cathedral is a famous Gothic cathedral located in Paris, France, and is considered one of the most iconic examples of Gothic architecture.

Feudalism was a social and economic system in which land was granted by a lord to a vassal in exchange for military service and other obligations.

Richard I, also known as Richard the Lionheart, was an English king who led the Third Crusade in the 12th century.

The rise of trade and towns led to the growth of a merchant class and the decline of the feudal system.

Dante Alighieri was an Italian poet who wrote the epic poem "The Divine Comedy", which is considered one of the greatest works of literature in the world.

The printing press, humanism, and corruption in the Catholic Church all contributed to the Protestant Reformation.

Martin Luther was a German monk who led the Protestant Reformation, challenging the authority of the Catholic Church and its practices.

The Protestant Reformation led to religious wars, the Peace of Augsburg, and the Edict of Nantes, which attempted to establish religious peace in Europe.