Earthquakes are primarily caused by the movement of tectonic plates along fault lines.

Surface waves, particularly Love and Rayleigh waves, cause the most damage during an earthquake due to their large amplitude and long duration.

The Richter scale is used to measure the magnitude of earthquakes, which is a logarithmic scale based on the amplitude of seismic waves.

Aftershocks are smaller earthquakes that occur after a larger earthquake, typically within the same region.

Stratovolcanoes, also known as composite volcanoes, are characterized by their steep-sided cone shape and explosive eruptions due to the presence of viscous magma.

Magma intrusion is the process by which magma rises from deep within the Earth's crust or mantle and intrudes into surrounding rocks.

Hawaiian eruptions are characterized by the continuous outpouring of low-viscosity lava, forming broad, gently sloping shield volcanoes.

Pyroclastic flows are fast-moving clouds of hot ash, gas, and rock fragments that can reach temperatures of up to 1000°C.

Lahars are mixtures of volcanic ash, mud, and water that can flow rapidly down the slopes of a volcano, causing significant damage.

Calderas are large, bowl-shaped depressions formed by the collapse of a volcano's summit, often due to the withdrawal of magma from beneath.

P-waves, or primary waves, are seismic waves that travel through the Earth's outer layer, the crust, and can travel through both solids and liquids.

The epicenter is the point on the Earth's surface directly above the hypocenter, the point where an earthquake starts.

P-waves, or primary waves, are the only seismic waves that can travel through the Earth's inner core.

Intensity is the measure of the strength of an earthquake at a particular location, based on the observed effects on people, buildings, and the environment.

Vulcanian eruptions are characterized by the ejection of large fragments of rock and ash, often accompanied by explosive activity.