The Franciscans, founded by St. Francis of Assisi, embraced a life of poverty and simplicity, focusing on preaching and serving the poor.

The Protestant Reformation, led by Martin Luther, aimed to challenge the authority of the Pope and promote a more personal relationship with God.

St. Augustine's theory of the 'just war' provided ethical guidelines for the use of military force in certain circumstances.

The Benedictines, established by St. Benedict, emphasized monasticism, community living, and the pursuit of spiritual growth.

Hildegard of Bingen, a German Benedictine abbess, was renowned for her mystical experiences and her writings on theology, medicine, and music.

The Magna Carta, although not a papal document, was a significant charter that established the rights of the English barons and limited the power of the monarchy.

The Dominicans, established by St. Dominic, focused on preaching, theological education, and the defense of Catholic orthodoxy.

The Cluniac Reforms, initiated by the Abbey of Cluny, aimed to purify the Church, promote monastic discipline, and strengthen papal authority.

Thomas Aquinas, an Italian Dominican friar, is renowned for his Summa Theologica, a systematic and influential work of Christian theology.

The Cathar Heresy, also known as Albigensianism, was a dualistic religious movement that rejected the material world and the authority of the Catholic Church.

Catherine of Siena, an Italian Dominican tertiary, was renowned for her mystical experiences, her political influence, and her writings on spiritual transformation.

The Lollard Movement, inspired by the teachings of John Wycliffe, challenged the authority of the Church, criticized clerical wealth, and promoted the translation of the Bible into English.

Thomas Aquinas, in his Summa Theologica, defended the doctrine of transubstantiation, arguing that the bread and wine of the Eucharist undergo a substantial change into the body and blood of Christ.

The Savonarola Movement, led by the Dominican friar Girolamo Savonarola, sought to purify the Church, promote moral reform, and establish a theocratic republic in Florence.

Teresa of Avila, a Spanish Carmelite nun, is renowned for her mystical experiences, her writings on the spiritual journey, and her reforms within the Carmelite Order.