Ptolemy, a Greek astronomer and mathematician, developed the geocentric model of the universe in the 2nd century CE. This model placed Earth at the center of the universe, with the sun, moon, and planets orbiting around it.

Astrology was primarily used in medieval times to predict the future, often based on the positions of celestial bodies at the time of a person's birth or an event.

Tycho Brahe, a Danish astronomer, made meticulous observations of the night sky and recorded data on planetary positions. His observations were later used by Johannes Kepler to develop his laws of planetary motion.

The astrolabe was a medieval instrument used to measure the altitude of celestial objects above the horizon. It was widely used by astronomers and navigators for various purposes.

Nicolaus Copernicus, a Polish astronomer, proposed the heliocentric model of the universe in the 16th century. This model placed the sun at the center of the universe, with Earth and other planets orbiting around it.

Casting horoscopes was the primary method used by medieval astrologers to make predictions. They created charts based on the positions of celestial bodies at the time of a person's birth to determine their personality, fortune, and future events.

Ptolemy developed the theory of epicycles and deferents to explain the irregular motion of planets. This theory proposed that planets moved in small circles (epicycles) centered on larger circles (deferents) around Earth.

The sundial was a medieval astronomical instrument used to determine the time of day or night based on the position of the sun. It consisted of a flat plate with a pointer that cast a shadow, indicating the time.

Johannes Kepler, a German astronomer, made significant contributions to the understanding of planetary motion. He developed the laws of planetary motion, known as Kepler's laws, which describe the elliptical orbits of planets around the sun.

The quadrant was a medieval astronomical instrument used to measure the angular distance between celestial objects. It consisted of a quarter-circle arc with markings for measuring angles.

Galileo Galilei, an Italian astronomer, observed the moons of Jupiter using a telescope in the 17th century. This observation provided evidence against the geocentric model, as it showed that objects could orbit other celestial bodies besides Earth.

The cross-staff was a medieval astronomical instrument used to measure the altitude of the sun above the horizon. It consisted of two pieces of wood or metal arranged in a cross shape.

Roger Bacon, an English philosopher and scientist, developed the theory of trepidation in the 13th century. This theory suggested that the Earth's axis wobbles over time, causing the position of the stars to change gradually.

The Jacob's staff was a medieval astronomical instrument used to determine the latitude of a location. It consisted of a staff with a crosspiece that could be moved along the staff to measure the angle between the horizon and a celestial object.

Ibn al-Haytham, an Arab mathematician and astronomer, developed the theory of planetary retrograde motion in the 11th century. This theory explained the apparent backward movement of planets as an optical illusion caused by the different speeds of Earth and the planets in their orbits.