Modus Ponens is a valid argument form where if P implies Q and P is true, then Q must also be true.

Affirming the consequent is the fallacy of assuming that if Q is true, then P must also be true, even though P implies Q does not guarantee the converse.

A tautology is a statement that is always true, regardless of the truth values of its components. 'P or not P' is a tautology because either P is true or not P is true, making the statement always true.

The rule of detachment states that if you have a conditional statement (P implies Q) and you know that the antecedent (P) is true, then you can conclude that the consequent (Q) is also true.

A deductively valid argument is one where the conclusion follows logically from the premises. In this case, the premises 'All dogs are mammals' and 'Fido is a dog' logically imply the conclusion 'Fido is a mammal'.

Denying the antecedent is the fallacy of assuming that if P implies Q and P is false, then Q must also be false. However, this is not necessarily the case.

A contradiction is a statement that is always false, regardless of the truth values of its components. 'P and not P' is a contradiction because it is impossible for both P and not P to be true at the same time.

The principle of explosion states that if a statement is false, then any other statement can be inferred from it. This is because a false statement has no logical constraints, so anything can be derived from it.

A deductively invalid argument is one where the conclusion does not necessarily follow from the premises. In this case, the premises 'All dogs are mammals' and 'Fido is a mammal' do not logically imply the conclusion 'Fido is a dog'.

The fallacy of the undistributed middle term occurs when a term appears in both premises of a syllogism but is not distributed in at least one of them. This can lead to an invalid argument.

A contingency is a statement that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction. Its truth value depends on the truth values of its components. 'P implies (Q or R)' is a contingency because its truth value depends on the truth values of P, Q, and R.

The rule of substitution states that if you have a conditional statement (P implies Q) and you know that R is equivalent to P, then you can substitute R for P in the conditional statement to get (R implies Q).

A categorical syllogism is an argument that consists of three parts: a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. The major premise makes a general statement about a category of things, the minor premise identifies something as belonging to that category, and the conclusion draws a conclusion about that thing based on the two premises.

The fallacy of the excluded middle occurs when it is assumed that a statement must be either true or false, without considering the possibility of a middle ground or a third option.

The statement 'If P, then Q' implies that whenever P is true, Q must also be true. Therefore, if P is false, then Q cannot be true, which is expressed by the statement 'If not P, then not Q'.