Existentialism emphasizes the importance of individual freedom and responsibility in creating meaning in life. It asserts that meaning is not inherent in the world but rather is discovered through one's own choices and actions.

Telos is a Greek word that translates to 'end' or 'purpose.' In philosophy, it refers to the ultimate goal or purpose of existence, often associated with the idea of progress and the direction in which things are moving.

Aristotle, in his Nicomachean Ethics, proposed that the ultimate goal of human life is eudaimonia, which can be translated as 'flourishing' or 'well-being.' He believed that eudaimonia is achieved through living a virtuous life and fulfilling one's potential.

The philosophy of history often assumes a linear view of progress, where humanity moves from a less advanced state to a more advanced one. This idea is associated with notions of technological advancement, social development, and moral improvement.

Marx's theory of historical materialism emphasizes the role of class struggle as the primary driver of progress. He argued that the conflict between different social classes, particularly the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, leads to societal change and the eventual transformation of economic and political systems.

Viktor Frankl, in his book 'Man's Search for Meaning,' explored the concept of a 'meaning crisis' in modern society. He argued that the lack of a clear sense of purpose and meaning can lead to feelings of emptiness and existential despair.

The is-ought problem highlights the difficulty in deriving moral judgments from purely factual statements. It argues that there is a gap between what is (descriptive statements) and what ought to be (prescriptive statements), and that moral values cannot be objectively justified based on facts alone.

Friedrich Nietzsche, in his philosophy of existentialism, emphasized the importance of individual freedom and self-creation. He believed that the meaning of life lies in creating one's own values and living authentically, rather than conforming to societal norms or religious doctrines.

The philosophy of meaning delves into questions about the nature and significance of human existence. It seeks to understand what makes life meaningful, what constitutes a good life, and how individuals can find purpose and fulfillment.

Oswald Spengler, in his book 'The Decline of the West,' proposed a cyclical view of history. He believed that civilizations go through a predictable cycle of birth, growth, decline, and fall, and that progress is an illusion.

Existential angst, also known as existential anxiety, is a feeling of unease, dread, or anxiety that arises from the awareness of one's own mortality and the meaninglessness of existence.

Friedrich Nietzsche, in his philosophy of Übermensch (superman), proposed that the meaning of life is to strive for self-transcendence and become a 'superman.' He believed that individuals should overcome their limitations and create their own values, rather than conforming to societal norms.

The philosophy of progress delves into questions about the nature and direction of progress. It seeks to understand what constitutes progress, how it is measured, and what factors contribute to it.

Epicurus, in his philosophy of hedonism, argued that the meaning of life is to find joy and pleasure in the present moment. He believed that the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain are the highest goods in life.

Historical determinism is the belief that the course of history is predetermined by certain factors, such as economic forces, social structures, or technological developments. It suggests that human agency and individual choices have limited influence on the overall direction of history.