While cultural differences may play a role in shaping individual outcomes, they are not a cause of racial inequality. Discrimination in housing, education, and employment are all well-documented factors that have contributed to racial differences in income and poverty.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the poverty rate for Black Americans was 20.8% in 2020, compared to 15.7% for Hispanic Americans, 10.2% for Asian Americans, and 9.1% for White Americans.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the median household income for White Americans was $79,900 in 2020, compared to $60,200 for Black Americans, $59,100 for Hispanic Americans, and $97,300 for Asian Americans.

School vouchers are a form of school choice that allows parents to use public funds to send their children to private schools. While school vouchers have been proposed as a way to address racial disparities in education, they have not been shown to be effective in reducing these disparities.

Cultural determinism is the idea that culture is the primary determinant of human behavior and social outcomes. This theory has been used to justify racial inequality by arguing that certain racial groups are inherently inferior to others.

While racial differences in income and poverty can lead to a number of negative consequences, greater political participation is not one of them. In fact, research has shown that racial minorities are more likely to participate in politics when they are economically disadvantaged.

Structural racism is the idea that racism is embedded in the institutions and structures of society, rather than being simply a matter of individual prejudice. This theory argues that racial inequality is maintained by laws, policies, and practices that advantage White people and disadvantage people of color.

Affirmative action is a set of policies and practices that are designed to promote equal opportunity for members of underrepresented groups. While affirmative action has been criticized for being unfair to White people, it has not been shown to be a factor in the persistence of racial differences in income and poverty.

Multiracialism is the idea that racial inequality is caused by a combination of cultural differences and discrimination. This theory argues that racial inequality cannot be fully understood without taking into account both the role of culture and the role of discrimination.

School choice is a form of school reform that allows parents to choose which school their children attend. While school choice has been proposed as a way to address racial disparities in education, it has not been shown to be effective in reducing these disparities.

Intersectionality is the idea that racial inequality is caused by a combination of structural racism and cultural differences. This theory argues that racial inequality cannot be fully understood without taking into account the ways in which race intersects with other forms of oppression, such as sexism, classism, and homophobia.

The rise of the Black middle class is not a factor that has contributed to the decline in racial differences in income and poverty. In fact, the Black middle class has grown in recent decades, but racial differences in income and poverty have persisted.

Racial realism is the idea that racial inequality is caused by a combination of structural racism, cultural differences, and individual prejudice. This theory argues that racial inequality is a complex phenomenon that cannot be fully understood without taking into account all of these factors.

School choice is a form of school reform that allows parents to choose which school their children attend. While school choice has been proposed as a way to address racial disparities in education, it has not been shown to be effective in reducing these disparities.

Racial realism is the idea that racial inequality is caused by a combination of structural racism, cultural differences, and individual prejudice. This theory argues that racial inequality is a complex phenomenon that cannot be fully understood without taking into account all of these factors.