Helioseismology relies on the analysis of sound waves, or seismic waves, that propagate through the Sun's interior. These waves provide information about the Sun's structure, dynamics, and composition.

The sound waves used in helioseismology are often referred to as solar oscillations, solar pulsations, or solar vibrations. These terms all describe the periodic variations in the Sun's brightness or velocity caused by the propagation of sound waves.

Sound waves in the Sun are primarily generated and propagate through the Sun's convective zone, which is the outermost layer of the Sun where convection occurs. In this region, hot plasma rises and cooler plasma sinks, creating turbulent motions that generate sound waves.

Helioseismology provides valuable information about the Sun's rotation rate, magnetic field strength, and internal structure. By studying the frequency and travel time of sound waves, scientists can infer the Sun's density, temperature, and composition at different depths.

The typical frequency range of solar oscillations, also known as solar eigenfrequencies, falls between 1 and 10 millihertz (mHz). These low frequencies correspond to the natural resonant frequencies of the Sun's interior.

Solar oscillations typically last for a few minutes, ranging from a few seconds to several minutes. The duration of an oscillation depends on its frequency and the depth at which it is generated.

In general, higher frequency solar oscillations originate closer to the Sun's surface, while lower frequency oscillations originate deeper in the Sun's interior. This is because the speed of sound waves decreases with depth due to the increasing density and temperature.

Studying solar oscillations with different frequencies allows scientists to probe different layers of the Sun's interior. Different frequencies correspond to different depths, providing information about the structure, dynamics, and composition of the Sun at various levels.

Helioseismology provides valuable information about the Sun's differential rotation, which refers to the variation in the Sun's rotation rate at different latitudes. By studying the travel time of sound waves across the Sun's surface, scientists can infer the Sun's rotation profile and gain insights into the Sun's internal dynamics.

Helioseismology provides indirect information about the Sun's magnetic field topology by studying the influence of the magnetic field on the propagation of sound waves. The magnetic field can affect the speed and direction of sound waves, allowing scientists to infer the structure and dynamics of the Sun's magnetic field.

Helioseismic imagers are specialized instruments designed specifically for helioseismology. They measure the Doppler shifts in the Sun's light caused by the motion of the Sun's surface due to sound waves. These measurements provide information about the frequency and travel time of solar oscillations.

Helioseismology faces several challenges, including the Sun's intense brightness, which can overwhelm the signals from solar oscillations. Additionally, the Sun's magnetic field can interfere with the propagation of sound waves, and the Sun's rotation can complicate the analysis of solar oscillations due to the Doppler effect.

Helioseismology has provided valuable insights into the Sun's core composition. By studying the frequencies and travel times of solar oscillations, scientists have been able to infer the density, temperature, and composition of the Sun's core, including the abundance of elements such as hydrogen, helium, and heavier elements.

Helioseismology can help identify regions on the Sun's surface where solar eruptions, such as flares and coronal mass ejections, are likely to occur. By studying the patterns of solar oscillations, scientists can detect areas of strong magnetic activity and shear flows, which are often associated with the buildup of energy that can lead to solar eruptions.