Embryonic stem cells are derived from the inner cell mass of the blastocyst, which is the early-stage embryo.

Stem cells have the ability to differentiate into various cell types, which is essential for tissue regeneration and repair.

Adult stem cells are found in various tissues throughout the body and can be used for tissue repair and regeneration.

Reprogramming is the process of converting adult cells into pluripotent stem cells by introducing specific factors.

Viral transduction is a common technique used to introduce reprogramming factors into adult cells to generate induced pluripotent stem cells.

The use of embryonic stem cells raises ethical concerns due to the destruction of embryos during their derivation.

Mesenchymal stem cells are commonly used in bone tissue engineering due to their ability to differentiate into bone-forming cells.

Scaffolds provide structural support and guidance for tissue regeneration by creating a three-dimensional environment for stem cells to grow and differentiate.

Polymer scaffolds are commonly used in cartilage tissue engineering due to their biocompatibility and ability to mimic the natural extracellular matrix.

The primary challenge associated with the use of scaffolds in tissue engineering is ensuring their biocompatibility to prevent adverse reactions in the body.

Bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2) is commonly used to promote the differentiation of stem cells into cardiomyocytes, which are heart muscle cells.

The primary challenge associated with the clinical translation of stem cell-based therapies is ensuring their safety and minimizing the risk of adverse effects.

Neural stem cells are commonly used in the treatment of Parkinson's disease due to their ability to differentiate into dopamine-producing neurons.

The primary challenge associated with the use of stem cells in cancer therapy is the risk of tumorigenicity, where the stem cells may form tumors.

Mesenchymal stem cells are commonly used in the treatment of spinal cord injuries due to their ability to promote tissue regeneration and repair.