While rodents, non-human primates, and invertebrates are widely used in learning and memory research, birds are not typically employed as animal models in this field.

In classical conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus is the stimulus that naturally triggers a response without any prior learning or association.

Extinction refers to the process by which a conditioned response gradually weakens and eventually disappears when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

The hippocampus is a brain structure that plays a crucial role in the formation of long-term memories, particularly those involving spatial navigation and episodic memory.

Discrimination refers to the ability of an organism to distinguish between different stimuli or situations, allowing it to respond appropriately to each one.

Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which two stimuli that occur close together in time or space become associated, leading to a conditioned response.

Insight learning refers to the sudden and insightful solution to a problem or puzzle, often involving a reorganization of existing knowledge or the discovery of new relationships.

Positive reinforcement involves increasing the frequency of a desired behavior by providing a positive consequence, such as a reward or a pleasant stimulus.

Punishment involves decreasing the frequency of an undesired behavior by providing a negative consequence, such as a reprimand or an unpleasant stimulus.

Observational learning, also known as social learning or modeling, involves learning through the observation and imitation of others' behaviors.

Spontaneous recovery refers to the phenomenon where a conditioned response that has been extinguished reappears after a period of time without any further reinforcement.

Latent learning refers to the gradual acquisition of knowledge or skills through experience, even in the absence of immediate reinforcement.

Generalization refers to the tendency of a conditioned response to occur in response to stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus.

The amygdala is a brain region that plays a crucial role in the regulation of emotions, particularly fear and anxiety, as well as in fear conditioning.

Shaping involves gradually shaping a desired behavior by reinforcing successive approximations of that behavior, starting with small steps and gradually increasing the complexity of the behavior.