Giambattista Vico, an Italian philosopher, proposed the theory of cyclical history, suggesting that civilizations progress through recurring stages of birth, growth, decline, and rebirth.

Karl Marx argued that economic factors, particularly the class struggle between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, are the primary determinants of historical change.

Francis Fukuyama, an American political scientist, argued that the end of the Cold War marked the end of history as humanity had reached the pinnacle of its ideological development.

Historiography encompasses the study of historical writing, examining how historians construct narratives, interpret sources, and shape our understanding of the past.

Friedrich Nietzsche rejected the idea of objective historical truth, asserting that history is a subjective interpretation shaped by our values and perspectives.

Historical interpretation involves the subjective analysis and evaluation of historical evidence to construct a meaningful narrative of the past.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel believed that history is a progressive process, guided by a rational spirit that leads humanity towards greater freedom and self-realization.

Historical temporality explores the ways in which the past, present, and future are interconnected and how they shape our understanding of historical events.

Augustine of Hippo believed that history is guided by a divine plan, with God's providence shaping the course of human events.

Historical analogy involves drawing parallels between past events and present or future situations to gain insights and make comparisons.

Maurice Halbwachs proposed the concept of collective memory, suggesting that history is a shared remembrance of the past that shapes a group's identity and worldview.

Historical source criticism involves analyzing the authenticity, credibility, and biases of historical sources to determine their reliability.

Hayden White argued that historical narratives are constructed through literary and rhetorical devices, reflecting the historian's subjective interpretation of the past.

Interdisciplinary history explores the connections between history and other fields, integrating insights from various disciplines to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the past.

Michel Foucault viewed history as a form of discourse that is used to construct and maintain power structures, shaping our understanding of the past and present.