African Americans have historically been the most underrepresented racial or ethnic group in public office in the United States, due to a combination of factors including discrimination, disenfranchisement, and lack of opportunity.

Gerrymandering is the practice of drawing electoral district boundaries in a way that favors one political party or group over another, often by creating districts that are oddly shaped or that pack or crack voters of a particular race or ethnicity into certain districts.

In Shaw v. Reno (1993), the Supreme Court ruled that racial gerrymandering is unconstitutional, holding that electoral districts cannot be drawn solely on the basis of race in order to create majority-minority districts.

Vote dilution is the phenomenon in which minority voters are concentrated in a small number of electoral districts, resulting in their votes having less impact on the overall outcome of an election. This can occur through gerrymandering, packing, or cracking.

Majority-minority districts are electoral districts in which a racial or ethnic minority group составляет majority of the population. These districts are created in order to increase the representation of minority groups in public office.

Cracking is the practice of drawing electoral district boundaries in a way that dilutes the voting power of a particular racial or ethnic group by dividing their population among multiple districts.

Racial and ethnic minorities often face a combination of challenges in running for public office, including lack of financial resources, lack of name recognition, and discrimination.

Racial affinity is the phenomenon in which voters tend to support candidates of their own race or ethnicity. This can be due to a number of factors, including shared cultural values, experiences, and interests.

Motor voter laws, same-day registration, and early voting are all policies that have been used to increase voter turnout among racial and ethnic minorities.

Voter suppression is the practice of using race or ethnicity as a factor in determining who is eligible to vote. This can be done through a variety of methods, such as restrictive voter ID laws, purging voter rolls, and intimidation.

Gender quotas are a policy that requires a certain number of women to be elected to public office. This can be done through a variety of methods, such as reserved seats or proportional representation.

The gender gap is the phenomenon in which women are underrepresented in public office. This can be due to a number of factors, including discrimination, lack of opportunity, and societal expectations.

Women often face a combination of challenges in running for public office, including lack of financial resources, lack of name recognition, and discrimination.

Gender affinity is the phenomenon in which voters tend to support candidates of their own gender. This can be due to a number of factors, including shared cultural values, experiences, and interests.

Motor voter laws, same-day registration, and early voting are all policies that have been used to increase voter turnout among women.