In a perfectly competitive market, there are many buyers and sellers, and each firm produces a homogeneous product. This means that firms cannot influence the price of their products and must accept the market price.

A monopoly is a market structure in which there is only one seller of a particular product or service. This gives the monopolist complete control over the price and output of the product.

In an oligopoly, there are a few large firms that control a significant portion of the market. The decisions of one firm can have a significant impact on the profits of other firms in the industry.

Penetration pricing is a pricing strategy in which a firm sets a price that is below the marginal cost of production in order to quickly gain market share.

Asymmetric information is a situation in which one party has more information than the other party. This can lead to problems such as adverse selection and moral hazard.

Adverse selection occurs when one party has more information about the quality of a product or service than the other party. In the case of a used car dealer selling a lemon, the dealer knows that the car is defective, but the buyer does not.

Moral hazard occurs when one party takes actions that increase the cost or risk to the other party, knowing that the other party will bear the consequences. In the case of a car insurance company raising premiums for drivers who have been in accidents, the drivers are more likely to take risks on the road, knowing that their insurance company will cover the costs of any accidents.

Signaling is a strategy used by firms to convey information about the quality of their products or services to potential buyers. This can be done through advertising, branding, or other forms of communication.

Deductibles are a common strategy used by insurance companies to reduce the problem of moral hazard. A deductible is a fixed amount that the insured must pay before the insurance company will cover any costs.

Information cascades occur when individuals make decisions based on the actions of others, rather than on their own private information. This can lead to herding behavior, where everyone follows the same course of action, even if it is not the best decision for them individually.

A stock market crash is an example of an information cascade. When the stock market starts to fall, investors sell their stocks out of fear that the market will continue to fall. This leads to a self-fulfilling prophecy, as the selling drives the market down even further.

Network effects occur when the value of a product or service increases as more people use it. This is because the product or service becomes more useful as more people have access to it.

Social media platforms are an example of a product that exhibits network effects. The more people who use a social media platform, the more valuable it becomes to each individual user.

Path dependence refers to the idea that the initial conditions of a system can have a significant impact on its long-run outcomes. This is because the initial conditions can lead to a series of events that reinforce each other, making it difficult to change the system's trajectory.

The QWERTY keyboard layout is an example of path dependence. The QWERTY layout was originally designed for typewriters, and it was not the most efficient layout for typing. However, once the QWERTY layout became the standard, it was difficult to change it, even though there were more efficient layouts available.