Industrial Organization and Environmental Economics is a field of study that examines the relationship between firms and the environment, including the impact of firms' activities on the environment and the impact of environmental regulations on firms.

A positive externality is an activity that benefits others without them having to pay for it. Planting trees is an example of a positive externality because it provides benefits such as cleaner air and water, and habitat for wildlife, to others without them having to pay for it.

A negative externality is an activity that harms others without them having to pay for it. Pollution from a factory is an example of a negative externality because it can cause health problems and damage to the environment, which can harm others without them having to pay for it.

The Coase Theorem states that externalities can be eliminated through bargaining between the parties involved, provided that there are no transaction costs. This means that if the parties involved can negotiate a mutually beneficial agreement, then the externality can be eliminated.

A Pigouvian Tax is a tax that is imposed on firms that generate negative externalities. The purpose of the tax is to discourage firms from engaging in activities that generate negative externalities, and to encourage them to adopt technologies and practices that reduce their negative externalities.

The Porter Hypothesis states that environmental regulations can lead to innovation and improved competitiveness. This is because firms may be forced to adopt new technologies and practices in order to comply with the regulations, which can lead to cost savings and improved efficiency. Additionally, firms may be able to use their environmental initiatives to market their products and services, which can lead to increased sales and profits.

The Tragedy of the Commons is the problem that arises when a common resource is overused by individuals. This can occur because individuals may not take into account the negative externalities that their use of the resource imposes on others. For example, if a common grazing land is overgrazed by individuals, it can lead to the degradation of the land and a reduction in the amount of grazing available for all individuals.

The Precautionary Principle is the principle that environmental regulations should be based on the precautionary principle. This means that even if there is no scientific certainty that an activity will cause harm to the environment, it should still be regulated if there is a risk of harm. The precautionary principle is often used to justify environmental regulations that are based on the best available scientific evidence, even if there is some uncertainty about the risks involved.

The Polluter Pays Principle is the principle that the polluter should be responsible for the costs of pollution. This means that the polluter should be required to pay for the costs of cleaning up pollution, as well as the costs of any damages that the pollution causes. The Polluter Pays Principle is often used to justify environmental regulations that require firms to adopt technologies and practices that reduce their pollution.

The Double Dividend Hypothesis is the hypothesis that environmental regulations can lead to both environmental benefits and economic benefits. This is because environmental regulations can lead to innovation and improved competitiveness, which can lead to economic growth. Additionally, environmental regulations can lead to improved public health and environmental quality, which can also lead to economic benefits.

The Green Paradox is the paradox that environmental regulations can lead to increased pollution. This can occur if the environmental regulations are not properly designed, or if they are not enforced effectively. For example, if an environmental regulation sets a pollution limit that is too high, it may not be effective in reducing pollution. Additionally, if an environmental regulation is not enforced effectively, firms may be able to get away with violating the regulation, which can also lead to increased pollution.

The Environmental Kuznets Curve is the curve that shows the relationship between environmental quality and economic growth. The curve typically shows that environmental quality declines as economic growth increases, but then begins to improve as economic growth continues to increase. This is because as countries become wealthier, they are able to afford to invest in environmental protection and cleanup.

The Brundtland Commission was the commission that developed the concept of sustainable development. The commission was established in 1983 by the United Nations General Assembly to address the challenges of environmental degradation and economic development. The commission's report, Our Common Future, defined sustainable development as "development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

The Stern Review was the review that assessed the economic costs of climate change. The review was commissioned by the British government in 2005 and was led by economist Nicholas Stern. The review found that the economic costs of climate change could be very high, and that the costs of taking action to mitigate climate change would be much lower than the costs of inaction.

The Kyoto Protocol is the international agreement that sets targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The protocol was adopted in 1997 and entered into force in 2005. The protocol sets targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions for developed countries, and also includes provisions for developing countries to participate in the effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.