Exposure to lead, even at low levels, can impair sperm production and quality, leading to reduced fertility in men.

Exposure to particulate matter, especially fine particulate matter (PM2.5), has been linked to reduced fertility in women by affecting hormonal balance and causing inflammation.

Exposure to certain pesticides, particularly organophosphates and carbamates, during pregnancy has been linked to an increased risk of neural tube defects in offspring.

Exposure to PCBs has been associated with thyroid hormone disruption, increased risk of miscarriage, and birth defects in offspring.

Exposure to air pollution, particularly particulate matter and ozone, during pregnancy has been associated with an increased risk of preterm birth.

Exposure to certain chemicals, such as phthalates, bisphenol A (BPA), and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), during pregnancy has been linked to developmental abnormalities, increased risk of childhood cancer, and impaired cognitive function in offspring.

Exposure to lead, mercury, secondhand smoke, and stress during pregnancy have all been linked to an increased risk of low birth weight.

Climate change can affect reproductive health through changes in menstrual cycles, increased risk of heat-related illnesses during pregnancy, and impacts on maternal nutrition due to changes in food and water resources.

Exposure to ionizing radiation, such as from X-rays or radiation therapy, can damage sperm and lead to infertility in men.

Maternal exposure to air pollution during pregnancy has been linked to an increased risk of respiratory problems, impaired cognitive function, and childhood asthma in offspring.

Exposure to secondhand smoke, stress, and certain chemicals during pregnancy have all been linked to an increased risk of miscarriage.

Climate change can impact access to reproductive health services through disruptions to transportation and communication networks, population displacement, and impacts on the availability of healthcare professionals and resources.

Exposure to air pollution, extreme heat, and certain pesticides during pregnancy have all been linked to an increased risk of stillbirth.

Exposure to certain chemicals, such as phthalates and bisphenol A (BPA), during pregnancy has been linked to an increased risk of reproductive problems in adulthood, effects on the development of reproductive organs, and infertility in offspring.

Exposure to air pollution, stress, and certain chemicals during pregnancy have all been linked to an increased risk of preeclampsia, a serious condition characterized by high blood pressure and protein in the urine.