Positive reinforcement involves providing a pleasant consequence to increase the likelihood of a desired behavior being repeated.

In a fixed-ratio schedule, a reinforcer is provided after a specific number of responses have been made.

Punishment involves removing a pleasant consequence to decrease the likelihood of an undesired behavior being repeated.

In a variable-interval schedule, a reinforcer is provided after a random amount of time has passed.

In a variable-ratio schedule, a reinforcer is provided after a random number of responses have been made.

Variable-ratio schedules are most effective for maintaining a high rate of responding because they create uncertainty about when the next reinforcer will be delivered.

Fixed-ratio schedules are most effective for teaching a new behavior because they provide a clear and consistent relationship between the behavior and the reinforcer.

Punishment is most effective for reducing the frequency of an undesired behavior because it provides an immediate and negative consequence for the behavior.

Extinction involves removing all reinforcement for a behavior, which leads to a gradual decrease in the frequency of the behavior.

Variable schedules involve providing a reinforcer after a random amount of time or after a random number of responses.

Fixed-interval schedules are most effective for maintaining a steady rate of responding because they provide a predictable schedule of reinforcement.

Variable-ratio schedules are most effective for promoting resistance to extinction because they create uncertainty about when the next reinforcer will be delivered.

Variable-ratio schedules are most effective for teaching a complex behavior because they create uncertainty about when the next reinforcer will be delivered, which encourages the learner to continue trying different behaviors until the desired behavior is performed.

Variable-interval schedules are most effective for reducing the frequency of an undesired behavior without causing extinction because they provide a random schedule of reinforcement, which makes it difficult for the learner to predict when the next reinforcer will be delivered.

Variable-ratio schedules are most effective for promoting generalization of a behavior to new situations because they create uncertainty about when the next reinforcer will be delivered, which encourages the learner to try different behaviors in different situations.