Tumor antigens are molecules that are expressed on cancer cells and can be recognized by the immune system. These antigens can be derived from mutated proteins, overexpressed proteins, or proteins that are normally expressed in low levels.

Immune surveillance is the process by which the immune system monitors the body for cancer cells. This process involves the continuous scanning of the body by immune cells, such as cytotoxic T cells and natural killer cells, which can recognize and destroy cancer cells.

Immune checkpoints are molecules that regulate the immune response. These molecules can be expressed on immune cells or cancer cells, and they can either activate or suppress the immune response.

Cancer immunotherapy is the use of the immune system to treat cancer. This can be done by stimulating the immune system to recognize and attack cancer cells, or by blocking molecules that suppress the immune response.

Checkpoint inhibitors are a type of cancer immunotherapy that block molecules that suppress the immune response. This allows the immune system to recognize and attack cancer cells more effectively.

Tumor antigens can be classified into three main types: mutated proteins, overexpressed proteins, and proteins that are normally expressed in low levels. Mutated proteins are proteins that have been altered due to mutations in the DNA of cancer cells. Overexpressed proteins are proteins that are expressed at higher levels in cancer cells compared to normal cells. Proteins that are normally expressed in low levels are proteins that are expressed at low levels in normal cells, but are expressed at higher levels in cancer cells.

Cytotoxic T cells are a type of immune cell that is primarily responsible for recognizing and destroying cancer cells. These cells can recognize tumor antigens presented on the surface of cancer cells and kill them through the release of cytotoxic molecules.

Immune checkpoints are molecules that play a role in regulating the immune response. In cancer, some immune checkpoints can be exploited by cancer cells to suppress the immune response and evade detection. This allows cancer cells to grow and spread unchecked.

PD-1 (Programmed cell death protein 1) is an example of an immune checkpoint molecule. It is expressed on the surface of T cells and plays a role in regulating the immune response. In cancer, PD-1 can interact with its ligand PD-L1, which is expressed on cancer cells, leading to the suppression of T cell activity and allowing cancer cells to escape immune surveillance.

Checkpoint inhibitors work by blocking immune checkpoints, such as PD-1 or CTLA-4, which are expressed on T cells. By blocking these checkpoints, checkpoint inhibitors unleash the anti-tumor immune response, allowing T cells to recognize and attack cancer cells more effectively.

Melanoma is commonly associated with mutations in the BRAF gene. BRAF is a protein involved in the MAPK signaling pathway, which plays a role in cell growth and proliferation. Mutations in BRAF can lead to uncontrolled cell growth and the development of melanoma.

Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) are immune cells, such as T cells, that infiltrate and accumulate within the tumor microenvironment. The presence of TILs is often associated with a strong anti-tumor immune response and a better prognosis for cancer patients. TILs can recognize and attack cancer cells, contributing to tumor regression and improved patient outcomes.

Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) is characterized by the presence of the Philadelphia chromosome, which is a result of a translocation between chromosomes 9 and 22. This translocation leads to the formation of the BCR-ABL1 fusion gene, which produces a constitutively active tyrosine kinase that drives the development of CML.

Cancer stem cells are a small population of cells within a tumor that possess the ability to self-renew and differentiate into various types of cancer cells. They are considered to be responsible for tumor initiation, growth, and metastasis. Cancer stem cells are often resistant to conventional therapies, making them a challenging target for cancer treatment.

Cervical cancer is commonly associated with the human papillomavirus (HPV) infection. HPV is a sexually transmitted infection that can cause cervical cancer in women. Persistent infection with certain types of HPV can lead to the development of precancerous lesions and eventually cervical cancer.