Lead-acid batteries consist of positive and negative plates made of lead and lead dioxide, respectively. These plates are immersed in an electrolyte solution composed of sulfuric acid and water.

During the discharge of a lead-acid battery, the following chemical reaction occurs: Pb + PbO₂ + 2H₂SO₄ → 2PbSO₄ + 2H₂O. This reaction results in the conversion of lead and lead dioxide to lead sulfate, while sulfuric acid is consumed.

The typical voltage of a lead-acid battery cell is approximately 2.1 volts. This value can vary slightly depending on the specific type of lead-acid battery and its state of charge.

The main advantage of lead-acid batteries is their low cost compared to other battery technologies. They are also relatively easy to manufacture and maintain.

The main disadvantage of lead-acid batteries is their relatively short cycle life compared to other battery technologies. They typically have a cycle life of around 500-1000 cycles, which means they can be charged and discharged a limited number of times before they need to be replaced.

The most common application of lead-acid batteries is in uninterruptible power supplies (UPS). UPS systems provide backup power to critical loads in the event of a power outage. Lead-acid batteries are also used in a variety of other applications, including electric vehicles, renewable energy storage, and portable electronics.

The recommended temperature range for operating lead-acid batteries is typically between 20°C and 40°C (68°F to 104°F). Operating batteries outside of this temperature range can reduce their performance and lifespan.

The recommended charging voltage for lead-acid batteries is typically around 14.4 volts. Charging batteries at higher voltages can lead to overcharging, which can damage the battery and shorten its lifespan.

The recommended discharge voltage for lead-acid batteries is typically around 10.5 volts. Discharging batteries below this voltage can lead to sulfation, which can damage the battery and reduce its capacity.

Lead-acid batteries require regular maintenance to ensure optimal performance and lifespan. This typically involves checking the electrolyte level, cleaning the terminals, and performing equalization charging.

Lead-acid batteries should be stored in a cool, dry place with a temperature between 10°C and 20°C (50°F to 68°F). Storing batteries at higher temperatures can lead to self-discharge and reduced lifespan.

The typical lifespan of a lead-acid battery is around 3-5 years. However, this can vary depending on the type of battery, its operating conditions, and maintenance practices.

Lead-acid batteries contain toxic materials, including lead and sulfuric acid. If not disposed of properly, these materials can leach into the environment and cause pollution. Lead-acid batteries should be recycled to minimize their environmental impact.

There have been several recent advancements in lead-acid battery technology, including the development of new electrode materials with higher energy density, improved electrolyte formulations for better performance and longer lifespan, and advanced charging techniques to reduce charging time and improve battery life.

Lead-acid batteries are expected to continue to be widely used in various applications due to their low cost, reliability, and well-established manufacturing processes. However, they may face competition from more advanced battery technologies in certain applications where energy density and lifespan are critical factors.