Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an organism learns to associate a neutral stimulus with a meaningful stimulus, leading to a conditioned response.

In operant conditioning, the rate of response can be increased or decreased by positive reinforcement (presentation of a pleasant stimulus), negative reinforcement (removal of an unpleasant stimulus), or punishment (presentation of an unpleasant stimulus or removal of a pleasant stimulus).

Observational learning is a type of learning in which an organism learns by observing the behavior of others and the consequences of their actions.

Latent learning is a type of learning in which an organism acquires knowledge or skills without any apparent reinforcement or reward.

Episodic memory is the ability to remember specific events or experiences that have occurred in the past.

Spatial cognition is the ability to understand and navigate the spatial environment, including the ability to remember the location of objects, create mental maps, and navigate from one place to another.

Working memory is the ability to hold information in mind temporarily, manipulate and process information, and plan and execute complex tasks.

Metacognition is the ability to think about one's own thinking, monitor and control one's own cognitive processes, and evaluate one's own strengths and weaknesses.

A discrimination task involves presenting two stimuli simultaneously and measuring the animal's preference for one over the other.

In a matching-to-sample task, the animal is presented with a sample stimulus followed by a series of comparison stimuli, and the animal must choose the comparison stimulus that matches the sample stimulus.

A delayed matching-to-sample task is similar to a matching-to-sample task, but with the addition of a delay between the presentation of the sample stimulus and the comparison stimuli.

In a paired-associates task, the animal is presented with a series of stimulus pairs, each consisting of a sample stimulus and a comparison stimulus, and the animal must learn to associate the sample stimulus with the comparison stimulus.

Causal reasoning is the ability to understand the causal relationships between events, such as understanding that one event causes another event to happen.

Inductive reasoning is the process of drawing general conclusions from specific observations.

Deductive reasoning is the process of drawing specific conclusions from general observations.