Karl Popper is often credited with first explicitly formulating the problem of demarcation in his book The Logic of Scientific Discovery.

According to Karl Popper, the key characteristic of a scientific theory is that it is falsifiable, meaning that it can be tested and potentially refuted by empirical evidence.

The fallacy of appeal to ignorance occurs when someone claims that a theory is true because it has not yet been proven false. This is a fallacy because the absence of evidence against a theory does not necessarily mean that the theory is true.

Astrology is an example of a pseudoscience because it makes claims about the influence of celestial bodies on human affairs that are not supported by empirical evidence.

The logical positivists proposed the verifiability criterion as a way to distinguish between science and non-science. According to this criterion, a statement is scientific only if it can be verified through empirical observation.

The problem of underdetermination arises when a theory makes successful predictions but is not falsifiable. This means that there are multiple theories that could potentially explain the same data, and there is no way to determine which theory is true.

The theory of evolution is an example of a theory that is underdetermined by the evidence because there are multiple possible explanations for the diversity of life on Earth.

The argument from regress claims that all scientific theories are ultimately based on unproven assumptions, and that this leads to an infinite regress of explanations.

The theory of evolution is an example of a scientific theory that is based on unproven assumptions, such as the assumption that natural selection is the primary mechanism for evolution.

Pluralism is the view that claims that there is no clear distinction between science and non-science, and that there are multiple ways of knowing the world.

Thomas Kuhn is an example of a philosopher who advocates for pluralism. In his book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Kuhn argues that science is not a linear progression of knowledge, but rather a series of discontinuous revolutions.

Scientism is the view that claims that science is the only way of knowing the world, and that all other forms of knowledge are inferior.

Richard Dawkins is an example of a philosopher who advocates for scientism. In his book The God Delusion, Dawkins argues that science is the only way of knowing the world, and that religion is a harmful superstition.

Anti-scientism is the view that claims that science is a social construction, and that it is not objective or reliable.

Bruno Latour is an example of a philosopher who advocates for anti-scientism. In his book Science in Action, Latour argues that science is a social process, and that it is not objective or reliable.