Kidney stones or renal calculi are solid masses made of crystals. Calcium stones are the most common. They can be made of calcium oxalate
So, the correct answer is 'Calcium oxalate'

Accumulation of urea in body is called uraemia. It may be due to kidney failure and other metabolic waste products may also accumulate. Uraemia develops after about 7 days of anuria (absence of urine) because of the reduced glomerular filtration rate and impaired tubular secretion of urea. Increased blood urea usually leads to confusion and mental disorientation.

Oliguria is the condition of less than 400 ml of urine per day in adults, whereas severe oliguria means less than 100 ml of urine per day in adults. Anuria means absence of urine and diuresis is the production of a large volume of urine. Diuresis may lead to acute dehydration and electrolyte imbalance.

Phenylketonuria results when there is a deficiency of liver enzyme phenyl alanine hydroxylase that converts phenyl alanine into tyrosine. It results with a high level of phenyl alanine in blood, tissue fluids and urine.

Normal stools can vary in shades of brown, mostly due to diet.
Bile salts are released into the stools by the liver, giving the stools a brown color. If the liver is not producing enough bile, or if the flow of the bile is blocked and not draining from the liver, the stools will be pale or clay-colored.
Therefore, the correct answer is option D.

• Dialysis is an artificial procedure of excretion of metabolites from the blood when kidneys do not work. 
• In this process, the harmful waste products are removed from the blood. The dialysis apparatus of the dialyzer is commonly known as an artificial kidney.
• The process of dialysis is generally recommended for the person who has been suffering problems related to the kidney and the kidney is not functioning properly.

Diuresis as a pathological condition occurs  under hyposecretion of ADH or Vasopressin, which affects the water rreabsorption by the tubule into the blood by the peritubular network.This results in excretion of dilute urine. A disorder known as diabetes insipidus.

Diabetes insipidus (DI) is an uncommon condition in which the kidneys are unable to prevent the excretion of water. The amount of water excreted in the urine is controlled by antidiuretic hormone (ADH). ADH is also called vasopressin. ADH is produced in a part of the brain called the hypothalamus. It is then stored and released from the pituitary gland. This is a small gland just below the base of the brain. DI caused by a lack of ADH is called central diabetes insipidus. When DI is caused by a failure of the kidneys to respond to ADH, the condition is called nephrogenic diabetes insipidus.  Nephrogenic means related to the kidney.

Increase in frequency of urination is called as Polyurea. The most common cause of polyurea in children and adult is uncontrolled diabetes mellitus.it may also occur due to various reasons such as urinary tract infractions, hypopituitarism, Hyperglycemia etc.

Ketonuria is the Presence of the high number of ketone bodies in urine. It may occur due to diabetes, starvation, fasting or glycogen storage disease. Ketone bodies(acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate) are water-soluble molecules containing keto group these are not carbohydrates like Ketone sugar (fructose).

Haematuria is the presence of blood cells in the urine. It may occur due to various reasons such as urinary tract infections, kidney stones etc. Both RBC(Red blood cells) and WBC (White blood cells) are blood cells. Hence haematuria is the presence of both RBC, WBC in urine.

Haematuria is the presence of blood cells in the urine. It may occur due to various reasons such as urinary tract infections, kidney stones etc. Hence haematuria is the disorder involving the loss of blood through the urine.

Kidney stones are also called urine calculi. Urine calculi are small stones which are hard deposit in the kidneys and cause pain when are passed through the urinary stream. They are often calcium oxalate crystals. Hence kidney stone is produced due to crystallization of oxalates.

When the body has low levels of insulin it cannot get enough glucose into cells for energy requirements. So the body uses alternate energy by burning body fat. Ketone bodies are byproducts in the metabolism of fat. During starvation or fasting conditions the liver synthesizes glucose through a process called gluconeogenesis. Gluconeogenesis is a metabolic pathway that results in the generation of glucose from fat. During gluconeogenesis, the ketone bodies are formed as byproducts where the product is glucose. The accumulation of ketone bodies in tissues are called as ketosis. Hence ketosis is due to Low insulin levels.

Anuria means non passage of urine, in practice is defined as passage of less than 100 milliliters of urine in a day. Anuria is caused by failure in the function of kidneys. It may also occur because of some severe obstruction like kidney stones or tumours. It may occur with end stage renal disease.

Diabetes insipidus is a condition caused by the deficiency of antidiuretic hormone ADH in the body. ADH(Antidiuretic hormone) helps the kidneys keep the correct amount of water in the body. Diabetes insipidus is marked by intense thirst and heavy urination. Thus the condition in-which kidneys fail to conserve water leading to water loss and dehydration due to impaired ADH synthesis or release is Diabetes insipidus'.

Rickets is the condition of the weakening of bones due to vitamin D deficiency in the children. In people with old age, rickets is due to renal insufficiency caused due to Osteoporosis and chronic kidney disease.

Glycosuria is the presence of glucose(6 carbon sugar) in urine. It majorly occurs due to untreated diabetes mellitus. Hence glycosuria is a high amount of sugar in the urine.

Acute renal failure is a condition in which the kidneys suddenly can't filter waste from the blood. It can occur as a result of blood loss, toxins, or physical damage to the kidneys. Edema, hypertension and acidosis are few symptoms of acute renal failure. This is treatable and does not result in immediate death. 

The term diuresis refers to the excessive production of urine. When excess water is lost through urine the blood volume is decreased and its osmolarity is increased which stimulates the posterior pituitary to release ADH. ADH decreases the volume of urine by increasing the reabsorption of water by kidneys and prevents diuresis. Hence it is also called antidiuretic hormone. ADH deficiency causes diuresis which leads to polydipsia (excess thirst) and polyuria (excess urine).

Presence of ketone bodies in urine is called as ketonuria. It indicates diabetes mellitus.In diabetes mellitus glucose cannot enter the cell due to lack of insulin hence Ketone bodies are the alternate source of energy. when glucose is in short supply, ketone bodies are made in the liver by break down of fat when there is not enough sugar or glucose to supply body's fuel needs.

Rickets is a condition especially due to deficiency of vitamin D which results in weak and soft bones in children. In Elderly patients, Rickets that occur due to chronic renal insufficiency is called Renal rickets. Renal rickets is bending of weight-bearing long bones in Elderly Persons. Bones become weak which results in bending of bone because excess calcium is lost through urine due to renal insufficiency.

If one kidney is removed, the other kidney will take over the work of the removed kidney and thus nothing will happen to the person and he will survive. 

Ketonuria is a term, which describes the presence of ketone bodies in the urine. Ketones are produced in the body as part of the breakdown of fatty acids. When they are present in the urine, it indicates that the body is burning fat for energy. Ketonuria occurs when diabetes mellitus becomes out of control and blood sugar levels rise too high. When this happens, the body, not having sufficient insulin to get energy into the bodys cells, breaks down body tissue (fat and muscle) into ketones, which can be used as fuel without the need for insulin.

An X-ray of lower abdomen shows shades in the region of the ureter suspected to be a ureteric calculus.  As the formation of calculus (renal stones) blocks ureter it leads to anuria (no passage of urine) and as the stones grow larger they cause irritation of wall of ureter which leads to blood in urine i.e haematuria. Hence a possible clinical symptom would be Anuria and haematuria.

Renal glycosuria, is a rare condition in which the simple sugar glucose is eliminated (excreted) in the urine despite normal or low blood glucose levels. With normal kidney (renal) function, glucose is excreted in the urine only when there are abnormally elevated levels of glucose in the blood. However, in those with renal glycosuria, glucose is abnormally eliminated in the urine due to improper functioning of the renal tubules, which are primary components of the filtering units of the kidneys (nephrons). 

ADH(antiduretic hormone) causes polyuria(excessive urine volume)and polydipsia (increase thirst).The deficiency of ADH causes excessive secretion of urine due to lack of reabsorption at distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct and result in excess thirst.ADH deficiency caused diabetes insipidus.